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Jalisco,^[a] officially the Free and Sovereign State of Jalisco,^[b] is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is located in western Mexico and is bordered by six states, Nayarit, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Michoacán, and Colima. Jalisco is divided into 125 municipalities, and its capital and largest city is Guadalajara.

Jalisco is one of the most economically and culturally important states in Mexico, owing to its natural resources as well as its long history and culture.^[10] Many of the characteristic traits of Mexican culture are originally from Jalisco, such as mariachi, tequila, ranchera, birria, and jaripeo—hence the state’s motto: Jalisco es México (‘Jalisco is Mexico’). Economically, it is ranked third among the Mexican states, with industries centered in the Guadalajara metropolitan area, the third largest metropolitan area in Mexico. The state is home to two significant indigenous populations, the Huichols and the Nahuas. There is also a significant foreign population, mostly from the United States and Canada, living in the Lake Chapala and Puerto Vallarta areas.^[11][12][13]

Etymology

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The name is derived from the Nahuatl Xālixco, which means “over a sandy surface”.^[10][14] Until about 1836, the name was spelled “Xalisco,” with the “x” used to indicate the “sh” sound from Nahuatl. However, the modern Spanish based pronunciation is represented with a “j.”^[10] Jalisco is pronounced [xaˈlisko] or [haˈlisko], the latter pronunciation used mostly in dialects of southern Mexico, the Caribbean, much of Central America, some places in South America, and the Canary Islands and western Andalusia in Spain where [x] has become a voiceless glottal fricative ([h]).^[15] The coat of arms for Guadalajara was adopted and adapted as the state seal since 1989 with minor changes to distinguish the two.^[14] The nickname for people from Jalisco, “tapatío“, derives from the Nahuatl word tapatiotl (the name of a monetary unit in pre-Columbian times); Franciscan Alonso de Molina wrote that it referred specifically to “the price of something purchased.”^[16]

History

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Pre-Hispanic period

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Nomadic peoples moving south arrived in the Jalisco area around 15,000 years ago.^[17][18] Some of the oldest evidence of human occupation is found around Zacoalco and Chapala lakes, which used to be connected. This evidence includes human and animal bones and tools made of bone and stone.^[17] Other signs of human habitation include petroglyphs and cave paintings found at Cabo Corrientes, San Gabriel, Jesús María, La Huerta, Puerto Vallarta, Mixtlán, Villa Purificación, Casimiro Castillo, Zapotlán el Grande and Pihuamo.^[19]

Agriculture began in the same region around 7,000 years ago, giving rise to the first permanent settlements in western Mexico.^[17] Ceramics began to be produced about 3,500 years ago for both utilitarian and ceremonial purposes. The oldest pieces of Jalisco area pottery are called El Opeño, after an area near Zamora, Michoacán and Capacha after an area in Colima. The appearance of these styles indicates a certain specialization of labor, with distinct settled cultures established by 1000 BCE.^[17] The earliest settled cultures were centered on the site of Chupícuaro, Guanajuato, which has a large zone of influence from Durango east, crossing through modern Jalisco’s north. Sites related to these cultures have been found in Bolaños, Totoate, the Bolaños River Canyon, and Totatiche, as well as other locations in the Los Altos Region.^[17] Cultures dating to the early part of the Christian era are distinguished by the use of shaft tombs, with major examples found in Acatlán de Juárez, El Arenal and Casimiro Castillo. The use of this type of tomb is unknown anywhere else in Mexico.^[17][19]

In the 7th century, Toltec and Teotihuacan influence is evident in the area, with a dominion called Xalisco established by the Toltecs in 618.^[20][21] The dominion was established through the military domination of the weaker local groups. More recent archeology of the area has produced evidence of larger cities, large scale irrigation and a kind of script used by various cultures of the area.^[19] The Toltec influence had a strong influence over religious development with deities formalizing into gods recognized by the later Aztec civilization such as Tlāloc, Mictlāntēcutli and Quetzalcoatl.^[17] A number of cities were built during this time, including Ixtepete, which show many features of Mesoamerican architecture such as the building of pyramid bases, temples and Mesoamerican ballcourts. However, these are sparse because there were very few communities of the size needed to support them. Stones used for building were often cut in angles and with relief such as those found in Tamazula and El Chanal, Colima. Ixtepete from the tenth century has talud/tablero construction showing Teotihuacan influence.^[17] By 1112, the tribes dominated by the Toltecs rebelled and brought an end to the domination; however, the area would be conquered again in 1129, this time by the Chichimecas.^[21] One reason for ancient civilizations in the area was the large deposits of obsidian and it was the center of the Teuchitlán culture.^[22] Evidence of the most advanced pre Hispanic cultures are found in the center and south of the state. The most important site is Ixtepete in Zapopan which dates from between the 5th and 10th centuries and shows Teotihuacan influence.^[18]

By 1325, the Purépecha Empire had become dominant in parts of the state, but in 1510, the indigenous settlements of Zapotlán, Sayula and Zacoalco pushed back the Purépecha during the Salitre War.^[19]

Colonial period

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Over its history, the Jalisco area has been occupied by a variety of ethnicities including the Bapames, Caxcans, Cocas, Guachichiles, Huichols, Cuyutecos, Otomis, Nahuas, Tecuexes, Tepehuans, Tecos, Purépecha, Pinomes, Tzaultecas and Xilotlantzingas. Some writers have also mentioned groups such as the Pinos, Otontlatolis, Amultecas, Coras, Xiximes, Tecuares, Tecoxines and Tecualmes.^[19] When the Spanish arrived the main ethnic groups were the Cazcanes, who inhabited the northern regions near Teocalteche and the Lagos de Morenos, and the Huichols, who inhabited the northwest near Huejúcar and Colotlán. Other groups included the Guachichil in the Los Altos area, the Nahuatl speaking Cuyutecos in the west, the Tecuexes and Cocas near what is now Guadalajara, and the Guamares in the east near the Guanajuato border.^[20]

Shortly after the conquest of the Aztecs in 1521, the Spanish pushed west.^[21] They overpowered the Purépecha in Michoacán, converting their capital of Tzintzuntzan as a base to move further west. One reason for the push towards the Pacific was to build ships and shipping facilities in order to initiate trade with Asia. Another draw was to find more mineral wealth as the Purépecha had already developed copper working along with silver and gold.^[23]

In 1522, Cristóbal de Olid was sent by Hernán Cortés northwest from Mexico City into Jalisco.^[20] Other incursions were undertaken by Alonso de Avalos and Juan Alvarez Chico in 1521, Gonzalo de Sandoval in 1522, and Francisco Cortés de San Buenaventura in 1524.^[19] The first area explored now belongs to the south of Jalisco down into what it now the state of Colima.^[23] In 1529, the president of the First Audencia in New Spain, Nuño de Guzmán, came west from Mexico City with a force of 300 Spanish and 6,000 Indian allies, traveling through Michoacán, Guanajuato, Jalisco, and Sinaloa. At the end of 1531, Guzmán founded the Villa del Espíritu Santo de la Mayor Españas as the capital of the newly conquered western lands. The name was changed shortly thereafter to Santiago Galicia de Compostela.^[19] In 1531, Guzmán ordered his chief lieutenant, Juan de Oñate, to found the Villa of Guadalajara, named after Guzmán’s hometown in Spain. It was initially founded in what is now Nochistlán in Zacatecas. Construction began in 1532, but the small settlement came under repeated attacks from the Cazcanes, until it was abandoned in 1533. The town of Guadalajara would move four times in total before coming to its modern site in 1542.^[20]

Most of Jalisco was conquered by Nuño de Guzmán, who then sent expeditions from there into Zacatecas and Aguascalientes in 1530.^[21] The first encomiendas were granted to the Spanish conquistadors in Nueva Galicia by Nuño de Guzmán and later by Antonio de Mendoza.^[23][24] Nuño de Guzmán founded five Spanish settlements, San Miguel, Chiametla, Compostela, Purificación, and Guadalajara to form the first administrative structure of the area. However, most of these settlements were too small to support the grand plans of many Spanish in America and attracted few settlers. By the end of the early colonial period, all of these settlements either disappeared or were moved to other locations.^[23] Guzmán was named the first governor of the region and Franciscans established monasteries in Tetlán and Ajijic.^[21]

Guzmán was brutal to the local indigenous populations, sending many to slavery in the Caribbean and committing genocide in areas. This would eventually lead to his imprisonment in 1536 by viceroy Antonio de Mendoza.^[20] However, not only Guzmán was to blame for subsequent indigenous hostility. The Spanish in Guadalajara and other locations began to take indigenous peoples as slaves in 1543.^[21] These Spanish in the area were looking to enrich themselves as fast as possible, following the success of the same of those who arrived first to the Mexico City area. This led to abuses of the native populations, widespread corruption and confrontations between the Spanish and the indigenous and among the Spanish themselves.^[24] Overwork and disease reduced the native population by about ninety percent between 1550 and 1650.^[24]

This would begin a history of conflict and uprising in the Jalisco area which would last from the 16th century to the 1920s.^[20][19] Early uprisings include that in Culiacán in 1533, of the Coaxicoria in 1538 and the Texcoixines and Caxcanes in 1541.^[19] Subduing the indigenous peoples proved difficult in general due to a lack of large dominion to co-opt as was done in the Mexico City area. In the early colonial period, it was not certain that the Spanish could impose its language or culture onto the native population. The initial effect of colonization was the influence of Nahuatl, as mestizos and indigenous from central Mexico had a greater impact on the local populations than the sparse Spanish.^[23][24]

The most significant early revolt was the Mixtón Rebellion in 1541. United under a leader named Tenamaxtli, the indigenous of the Jalisco area laid siege to Guadalajara. The Spanish provincial government under Oñate could not withstand the assault and Pedro de Alvarado was sent to area from Mexico City but this initial attempt was thwarted. During a battle, a horse fell on Alvarado, mortally wounding him. Viceroy Mendoza then arrived with a force of 300 horsemen, 300 infantry, artillery and 20,000 Tlaxcalan and Aztec allies to recapture the territory held by the indigenous resistance.^[20] The Mixtón War prompted Charles V to create the Audencia of Nueva Galicia which extended from Michoacán and into the present states of Jalisco, Colima, and parts of Zacatecas, Durango and Sinaloa.^[20][23] An Indian Council was formed to advise the four members of the new Spanish government.^[24] The area was called Nueva Galicia because the Crown wanted to reproduce in the new lands a territory similar to that of Spain.^[23] The seat of this colony was moved to Guadalajara in 1561, and it was made independent of Mexico City in 1575.^[21]

Most of the evangelization fell to regular clergy instead of monks.^[24] The bishopric of Guadalajara was established by Pope Paul II in 1546.^[21]

The Chichimeca War began in 1550. In 1554, the Chichimecas attacked a Spanish caravan of sixty wagons at the Ojuelos Pass, carrying off 30,000 pesos of clothing, silver and other valuables. At the end of the century, the Spanish were able to negotiate a peace with most.^[20] There later uprisings such as in Guaynamota in 1584, in Acaponeta in 1593, one led by Cogixito in 1617, and one in Nostic in 1704.

The province of Jalisco was separated from Michoacán in 1607 with the name of Santiago.^[19][21]

The last major colonial era insurrection occurred in 1801 led by an indigenous named Mariano.^[19][21] The last of the Chichimeca groups were ultimately defeated in 1591.^[21] However, these uprisings would gradually be overshadowed by the consolidation of political and economic power and peace treaties negotiated with indigenous groups such as the Coras and indigenous groups such as the Otomi were brought to settle.^[20]

Despite these conflicts, the 17th and 18th centuries brought development and economic prosperity to the region.^[20] In the colonial period, Guadalajara grew as the center of an agricultural and cattle producing area.^[16] Guadalajara grew from about 6,000 people in 1713 to 20,000 in mid century to 35,000 at the beginning of the 19th century.^[25]

The region’s ceramic tradition began in the early colonial period, with native traditions superimposed by European ones. The center of ceramic production was Tonalá due to its abundance of raw materials. The Guadalajara tradition became famous enough for wares to be exported to other parts of New Spain and Europe.^[24] The area was also important to the commerce of New Spain, as its strategic location funneled imported goods to other parts of the colony.^[20]

In 1786, New Spain was reorganized into twelve “intendencias” and three provinces. The Intendencia of Guadalajara included what is now Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Nayarit and Colima.^[19][21] Aguascalientes was separated from Jalisco in 1789.^[19] The University of Guadalajara was founded in 1792.^[21]

Independence

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At the beginning of the 19th century, Colima, parts of Zacatecas and the San Blas region (Nayarit) were still part of the Intendencia of Guadalajara.^[25] The area had relative freedom from Spanish colonial authorities and prospered with fewer trade restrictions. This, along with lingering indigenous resentment to Spanish rule since the 16th century, led it to be sympathetic to insurgent movements in the early 19th century.^[19]

Political instability in Spain, news of rebellions in South America and Miguel Hidalgo‘s Grito de Dolores prompted small groups to begin fighting against Spanish rule. There were two main groups in Jalisco, one headed by Navarro, Portual and Toribio Huirobo in areas such as Jalostotitlán, Arandas, Atotonilco and La Barca and the other headed by José Antonio Torres in Sahuayo, Tizapán el Alto, Atoyac and Zacoalco. Another insurrection occurred in 1812 along Lake Chapala with Mezcala Island as an insurgent fortress. Skirmishes between the indigenous there and royalist forces lasted until 1816, when lacking supplies, the insurgents accepted an amnesty.^[19][26] Insurgent sympathies led to economic advantages for the Mexican born criollos over the Spanish born with many Spanish families moving into the city of Guadalajara for safety.^[26]

Miguel Hidalgo’s army entered Jalisco during the Mexican War of Independence. In 1810, Guadalajara José Antonio Torres defeated the local royalist army and invited Hidalgo and his troops into the city.^[21] Hidalgo was heading west from the State of Mexico, pursued by Félix María Calleja and his troops loyal to the Spanish king. Hidalgo entered the city in November 1810. Hidalgo’s troops arrested many Spanish, and Hidalgo issued a decree abolishing slavery. Hidalgo was able to recruit soldiers for his army in the city, bringing it up to 80,000 men by the time Calleja arrived in January 1811. The rebels took up positions outside the city at a place called the Puente de Calderón. Royalist forces won this battle, ending the initial phase of the War and forcing Hidalgo to flee north. Hidalgo was captured and executed later that year.^[20][26]

The end of Hidalgo did not finish insurgent aspirations. The newspaper Despertador Americano was founded in 1811 in Guadalajara, sympathetic to the insurgent cause.^[21] However, no other major battles of the war would be fought in the state.^[20]

Independence was won by Agustín de Iturbide‘s Army of the Three Guarantees, which would make Iturbide Mexico’s first emperor, and making Jalisco one of a number of “departments” which answered directly to Mexico City. This act broke Nueva Galicia’s tradition of relative independence and provoked support for federalism.^[19]

In 1821, a proposal for a “Republic of the United States of Anáhuac” circulated in Guadalajara which called for a federation of states to allow for the best political union in Mexico. Much of these principles appeared with the 1824 Constitution which was enacted after Iturbide was dethroned.^[27] Under this Constitution, Colima, Aguascalientes and Nayarit were still part of Jalisco. Its first governor was Prisciliano Sánchez.^[21] The new state was divided into eight cantons: Autlán, Colotlán, Etzatlán, Guadalajara, La Barca, Lagos, Sayula, and Tepic.^[19]

Independence and the new Constitution did not bring political stability to Jalisco or the rest of the country. In the sixty-year period from 1825 to 1885, Jalisco witnessed twenty-seven peasant (primarily indigenous) rebellions. Seventeen of these uprisings occurred within one decade, 1855–64, and the year 1857 witnessed ten separate revolts.^[20] In 1852, in perhaps the most ranging of all Comanche raids, they reached Jalisco.^[28] Along with the rest of the county, Jalisco’s states vacillated between state and department as Liberals (who supported federalism) and Conservatives fought for permanent control of Mexico. The peasant rebellions and other political acts were in favor of the Liberals and against centralize rule from Mexico City. Jalisco and other western states tried to form a coalition in 1834 against the rule of Antonio López de Santa Anna, but the leaders of Guadalajara were forced to resign under threat of violence instigated by Santa Anna sympathizers, keeping the state in line.^[20] During the Mexican–American War, Jalisco planned defensive measures along with the states of Mexico, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Zacatecas and Aguascalientes. However, although the U.S. Navy came as close as the port of San Blas, the state was not invaded before the war ended.^[29]

The national struggles between Liberals and Conservatives continued in the 1850s and 1860s, with Jalisco’s government changing eighteen times between 1855 and 1864. While there was support for Federalism, most Liberals were politically aligned against the Church, which enjoyed strong support in the state.^[20] During the Reform War, Benito Juárez‘s Liberal government was forced out of Mexico City, arriving to Guadalajara in 1858. Despite this, Conservatives in power made Jalisco a department under direct rule from Mexico City. Jalisco remained mostly in Conservative hands until 1861.^[21] The war was devastating to the state’s economy and forcing mass migrations. Of the thirty most important battles of the Reform War, twelve took place in Jalisco territory.^[20]

During the French intervention in Mexico, French forces supporting Mexico’s second emperor Maximilian I, entered the state in 1865.^[21] The emperor was mostly not supported by the people of the state and in the following year, French forces were defeated at the La Coronilla Hacienda in Acatlán by Mexican General Eulogio Parra. This would allow Liberal forces to retake Guadalajara and push French forces out of the state.^[20][19] One permanent result of the French occupation was the separation of the San Blas area into a separately administered military district, which would eventually become the state of Nayarit.^[21][29]

In the 1870s, more than seventy percent of the population lived in rural areas.^[29] By 1878, the state of Jalisco extended over 115,000 km² (44,400 sq mi) with twelve cantons, thirty department and 118 municipalities, accounting for ten percent of the country’s population.^[29]

The end of the century would be dominated by the policies of Mexican President Porfirio Díaz. Livestock, which had been a traditional economic pillar of the state, began to decline during this time. The state’s agricultural output also declined slightly relative to the rest of the country during the same period. However, Guadalajara was one of the wealthiest cities in Mexico.^[30]

Mexican Revolution to present

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Opposition to the Díaz regime was not organized in the state with only isolated groups of miners, students and professionals staging strikes and protests. Presidential challenger Francisco I. Madero visited Guadalajara twice, once in 1909 to campaign and the other in 1910 to organize resistance to the Díaz regime.^[21] During the Mexican Revolution, most of the rural areas of the state supported Venustiano Carranza, with uprisings in favor of this army in Los Altos, Mascota, Talpa, Cuquío, Tlajomulco, Tala, Acatlán, Etzatlán, Hostotipaquillo, Mazamitla, Autlán, Magdalena, San Andrés and other places. However, these were isolated incidences and did not coalesce into an organized army to confront the federal government.^[19] Carranza vied for power in the state with Álvaro Obregón and Francisco Villa during the early part of the war with skirmishes among the various forces, especially between those loyal to Carranza and Villa.^[19]

In 1914, Carranza supporter Manuel M. Diéguez was named governor of Jalisco.^[19] Diéguez persecuted the clergy, confiscated the property of the rich and imprisoned or executed the supporters of Victoriano Huerta, whose forces he had pushed out of the city. Villa forced Diéguez to flee and released imprisoned clergy, but he too took money from the rich to give to the poor in exchange for their support. However, by April 1915, Carranza’s forces were on the rise again, pushing Villa’s forces out and reinstating Diéguez as governor.^[20][19]

Carranza gained the Mexican presidency in 1915, putting into place various social and economic reforms such as limits on Church political power and redistribution of agricultural lands.^[19][31] One major consequence of the Revolution was the 1917 Constitution. This put severe constraints of the Church including the secularization of public education and even forbade worship outside of churches.^[20] One other result was the creation of Jalisco’s current boundaries.^[19]

The new restrictions on the Church by the Constitution were followed by further laws against the practice of religion which were not supported by many in the state. The lower classes split into those loyal to the church and not.^[31] In particular were the “Intolerable Acts” enacted by President Plutarco Elías Calles.^[20] In 1926, a boycott was organized against these laws. In 1927, thirteen Catholic unions organized by priest Amando de Alba took up arms against the government in an uprising called the Cristero War. In 1928, Cristero leaders formed a rebel government in areas controlled by them, which was mostly in the Los Altos and far northern areas of the state.^[20][19] The struggle resulted in ten different governors of the state between 1926 and 1932.^[21] At its height, the Cristeros had a force of about 25,000 until the conflict was officially ended in 1929, with sporadic outbreaks of violence continuing until the 1930s. This waning of hostilities was due to the lack of enforcement of the Calles laws, despite remaining on the books.^[20]

During this time, the modern University of Guadalajara was refounded in 1926, but it was closed in 1933, then reopened in 1939.^[21]

More successful was the implementation was economic reforms begun by Carranza in 1915. By 1935, various agricultural lands were redistributed in the form of ejidos and other communal land ownership.^[19][21][31]

From the 1950s, the major concern for the state has been economic development. Most of the state’s development has been concentrated in its capital of Guadalajara, resulting is economic inequality in the state.^[19]

In 1974, a guerilla group kidnapped former governor José Guadalupe Zuno but released him days after.^[19]

Ciudad Guzmán, the center of the 1985 earthquake that destroyed parts of Mexico City, received reconstruction aid. Another major earthquake affected the population of Cihuatlán, Jalisco.^[19]

On 21 February 2021, the number of infections from the COVID-19 pandemic in Jalisco that began in March 2020 reached 217,852, and 10,031 people had died.^[32]

Geography

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With a total area of 78,599 square kilometers (30,347 sq mi), Jalisco is the seventh-largest state in Mexico, accounting for 4.1% of the country’s territory.^[33][34][35] The state is in the central western coast of the country, bordering the states of Nayarit, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Colima and Michoacán with 342 kilometers (213 mi) of coastline on the Pacific Ocean to the west.^[33][35]

Jalisco is made up of a diverse terrain that includes forests, beaches, plains, and lakes.^[16] Altitudes in the state vary from 0 to 4,300 meters (0 to 14,110 ft) above sea level, from the coast to the top of the Nevado de Colima.^[36][22] The Jalisco area contains all five of Mexico’s natural ecosystems: arid and semi arid scrublands, tropical evergreen forests, tropical deciduous and thorn forests, grasslands and mesquite grasslands, and temperate forests with oaks, pines and firs.^[22] Over 52% of the bird species found in Mexico live in the state, with 525, 40% of Mexico’s mammals with 173 and 18% of its reptile species. There are also 7,500 species of veined plants. One reason for its biodiversity is that it lies in the transition area between the temperate north and tropical south. It also lies at the northern edge of the Sierra Madre del Sur and is on the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, which provides a wide variety of ecological conditions from tropical rainforest conditions to semi arid areas to areas apt for conifer forests.^[37]

Its five natural regions are: Northwestern Plains and Sierras, Sierra Madre Occidental, Central Plateau, Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, which covers most of the state, and the Sierra Madre del Sur.^[36] It has an average altitude of 1,550 meters (5,090 ft) MASL, but ranges from 0–4,300 m (0–14,110 ft).^[35] Most of the territory is semi-flat between 600–2,050 m (1,970–6,730 ft), followed by rugged terrain of between 900–4,300 m (2,950–14,110 ft) and a small percentage of flat lands between 0–1,750 m (0–5,740 ft). Principal elevations include the Nevado de Colima, the Volcán de Colima, the Sierra El Madroño, the Tequila Volcano, the Sierra Tapalpa, Sierra Los Huicholes, Sierra San Isidro, Sierra Manantlán, Cerro El Tigre, Cerro García, Sierra Lalo, Sierra Cacoma, Cerro Gordo, Sierra Verde, and the Sierra Los Guajolotes.^[37]

Jalisco’s rivers and streams eventually empty into the Pacific Ocean and are divided into three groups: the Lerma/Santiago River and its tributaries, rivers that empty directly into the Pacific and rivers in the south of the state.^[37] Jalisco has several river basins with the most notable being that of the Lerma/Santiago River, which drains the northern and northeastern parts of the state.^[36] The Lerma River enters extends from the State of Mexico and empties into Lake Chapala on the east side. On the west, water flows out in the Santiago River, which crosses the center of Jalisco on its way to the Pacific, carving deep canyons in the land.^[22][37] Tributaries to the Santiago River include the Zula, the Verde River, the Juchipila and the Bolaños. About three quarters of the state’s population lives near this river system.^[37]

In the southwest of the state, there are a number of small rivers that empty directly into the Pacific Ocean. The most important of these is the Ameca, with its one main tributary, the Mascota River. This river forms the state’s border with Nayarit and empties into the Ipala Bay.^[37] The Tomatlán, San Nicolás, Purificación, Marabasco-Minatitlán, Ayuquila, Tuxcacuesco, Armería and Tuxpan rivers flow almost perpendicular to the Pacific Ocean and drain the coastal area.^[36] Another river of this group is the Cihuatlán River, which forms the boundary between Jalisco and Colima emptying into the Barra de Navidad Bay.^[37] The southeastern corner belongs to the Balsas River basin.^[36] This includes the Ayuqila and Tuxcacuesco, which join to form the Armería and the Tuxpan.^[37]

The other main surface water is Lake Chapala, and is the largest and most important freshwater lake in Mexico, accounting for about half of the country’s lake surface. The lake acts as a regulator of the flow of both the Lerma and Santiago Rivers.^[37] There are a number of seasonal and salty lakes linking to form the Zacoalco-Sayula land-locked system.^[36] There are other smaller lakes called Cajititlán, Sayula, San Marcos, and Atotonilco. Dams include the Cajón de Peña, Santa Rosa, La Vega, Tacotán and Las Piedras. Jalisco’s surface water accounts for fifteen percent of the surface freshwater in Mexico.^[37]

In 1987, four beaches in Jalisco were designated as federal marine turtle sanctuaries: El Tecuán, Cuitzmala, Teopa and Playón de Mismaloya, with an extension of 8 km (5.0 mi).^[37] Playa Majahuitas is 27 km (17 mi) southwest of Puerto Vallarta with a rugged coastline, numerous inlets and outcroppings. The Cañon Submarino underwater canyon is located offshore. Chamela Bay has the greatest number of islets in Mexico, many of which are inhabited by numerous bird species.^[38]

Jalisco has eight areas under conservation measures totaling 208,653.8 hectares. Two contains scientific research centers. These areas cover 4.8% of the state and only one, the Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve accounts for sixty percent of all legally protected land at 139,500 hectares. The other protected areas include the Chamela-Cuitzmala Bioshere Reserve (13,143 hectares), Volcán Nevado de Colima National Park (10,143 hectares), Bosque de la Primavera (30,500 hectares), Sierra de Quila (15,1923 hectares) and the Marine Turtle Protection Zone (175.8 hectares).^[37]

Thirteen plant communities are present in the state. Forty five to fifty percent of the state is characterized by deciduous and sub-deciduous forests. They occur along the coastal plains as well as in canyons in the central part of the state from sea level to 1600masl. Some areas, scattered within the tropical sub-deciduous forest along the coastal plains, are dominated by palms. Conifer and oak forests are most common in the highlands between 800 and 3,400masl, covering about one fourth of the state’s surface.^[36] One major conifer and oak forest is the Primavera Forest.^[22] Pine dominated areas in lower elevations are only found in the western corner of the state. Cloud and fir-dominated forests are restricted to ravines and protected steep slopes within the conifer and oak forest zones.^[36] Jalisco’s cloud forests include the Bosque de Maples and those on El Cerro de Manantlán.^[22] Savannas are found between 400 and 800 meters above sea level in the area the slopes towards the Pacific Ocean. These grasslands are a transition area between the tropical sub-deciduous forest and oak forest. The thorn forest includes an area of the coastal plains in the western part of the state as well as an area dominated by mesquite within the tropical deciduous forest. Grasslands are restricted to the northeastern corner interspersed with xerophilous scrub. There are mangroves along the ocean where waves are gentle. Beach and frontal dune vegetation dominates the rest of the coastline.^[36]

Climate

[edit]

Most of the state has a temperate climate with Tropical humid summers. There is a distinct rainy season from June to October.^[36] The climate can be divided into 29 different zones, from hot to cold and from very dry to semi moist. In most of the state, most of the rain falls in February.^[37]

The coastal area receives the most precipitation and has the warmest temperatures, at an average of between 22 and 26 °C and an average precipitation of about 2,000 mm annually.^[37] In the north and northwest, a dry climate predominates with average temperatures of between 10 and 18 °C, and average annual precipitation between 300 and 1,000 mm. The center of the state has three different climates, but all are mostly temperate with an average temperature of 19 °C and an average rainfall of between 700 and 1000 mm.^[37] The northeastern corner and coastal plains of Tomatlán are the driest areas with less than 500 mm annually.^[36] Los Altos de Jalisco region has a number of microclimates due to the rugged terrain. The area is mostly dry with an average temperature of 18 °C except in the north, where it fluctuates between 18 and 22 °C.^[37] In the highlands, the average temperature is less than 18 °C.^[36]

In various parts of the state there are areas with a semi-moist, temperate climate, some with average temperatures of between 10 and 18 °C and others of between 18 and 22 °C.^[37]

In the highlands of the Sierra de Manantlán, Cacaola, Tepetates and Mascota near the coastal plains there is the most rainfall, reaching 1600 mm per year. In the highlands, the average temperature is less than 18 °C.^[36]

On 23 October 2015, Jalisco was hit by Hurricane Patricia. This was the second most intense hurricane ever registered and made landfall near Cuixmala, Jalisco. Though it began as a tropical storm, unusual environmental conditions strengthened Patricia to become a Category 5 Hurricane within 24 hours, with winds of 345 km/h (96 m/s; 214 mph).^[39] The mountains surrounding the area of landfall acted as a barrier that weakened the hurricane before it finally hit ground at 150 mph (240 km/h). Security measures were implemented in time and Official Emergency Messages^[40] were released to keep citizens and tourists in dangerous areas properly informed. Despite losing strength, Hurricane Patricia caused severe material damage, flooding and landslides; but there were no deaths reported related to the storm in any region affected.

Largest cities

[edit]

Demographics

[edit]

Population

[edit]

Year	Pop.	±%
1895	1,114,765	—
1900	1,153,891	+3.5%
1910	1,208,855	+4.8%
1921	1,191,957	−1.4%
1930	1,255,346	+5.3%
1940	1,418,310	+13.0%
1950	1,746,777	+23.2%
1960	2,443,261	+39.9%
1970	3,296,586	+34.9%
1980	4,371,998	+32.6%
1990	5,302,689	+21.3%
1995	5,991,176	+13.0%
2000	6,322,002	+5.5%
2005	6,752,113	+6.8%
2010	7,350,682	+8.9%
2015	7,844,830	+6.7%
2020[6]	8,348,151	+6.4%

As of 2020, the state population was 8,348,151,^[42] the third most populated federal entity in Mexico—after the State of Mexico and Mexico City—with 6.5% of Mexico’s total population.^[34][43] Over half of the state’s population lives in the Guadalajara metro area. Of the over 12,000 communities in the state, over 8,700 have a population of under fifty.^[44] 87% of the population lives in urban centers compared to 78% nationally.^[45]

Despite the fact that the number of children per woman has dropped by more than half from a high of 6.8 in 1970, the total population has grown from 5,991,175 in 1995 to the present number.^[44] One important factor in population growth is migration into the state. Since 1995, over 22% of the state population was born somewhere else. About three quarters of these live in the Greater Guadalajara area. Most of those who migrate into the state are either from Michoacán, Mexico City, State of Mexico, Sinaloa, or Baja California.^[44][46]

The state ranks third in socioeconomic factors. As of 2010, there were 1,801,306 housing units in the state. 94.2% have running water, 97.4% have sewerage, and 99% have electricity. 25% of households are headed by women, with 65.6% occupied by nuclear families. 22.2% are occupied by extended families.^[47]

There is also emigration from the state, mostly to the United States. Jalisco is ranked seventh in Mexico for the number of people who leave for the United States.^[44][20] As of 2000, 27 of every 1000 residents lived in the United States, higher than the national average of 16 per 1000.^{[46][failed verification]} Those who stay within Mexico generally head to Nayarit, Baja California, Colima, Michoacán, and Guanajuato.^[46]

Ethnic groups

[edit]

There are no official numbers for ethnic groups but as of 2005, the state has a population of 42,372 people who spoke an indigenous language.^[44] Eight out of every 1000 people speak an indigenous language, above the national average of six per 1000.^[34] As of 2010, the most common indigenous language is Huichol with 18,409 speakers, followed by Nahuatl at 11,650, then Purépecha at 3,960, and variations of Mixtec at 2,001. In total, 51,702 people over the age of five speak an indigenous language, which is less than one percent of the total population of the state. Of these indigenous speakers, fourteen percent do not speak Spanish.^[48] Municipalities with the highest indigenous population in general are Mezquitic, Zapopan, and Guadalajara. Zapopan’s and Guadalajara’s indigenous population is mostly made up of those who have migrated to the area for work.^[44]

The Huichols are concentrated in the municipalities of Mezquitic and Bolaños in the north of the state. In this same area are four of this ethnicity’s most important ceremonial centers, San Andrés Cohamiata, Santa Catarina Cuexcomatitlán, San Sebastián Teponahuaxtlán, and Tuxpan de Bolaños. The fifth, Guadalupe Octán, is in Nayarit.^[44] The Huichols are of the same ethnic heritage as the Aztecs and speak a Uto-Aztecan language. They are best known for the preservation of their pre Hispanic shamanic traditions. The Huichol romanticize their past, when game was plentiful and they were free to roam the vast mountain ranges and deserts of their homeland. This was a time of freedom for them, before they became tethered to the growing of maize. Agriculture is difficult in the mountainous areas where they live. Elaborate ceremonies are enacted to help ensure crops’ success. There are three basic elements in Huichol religion, which are corn, deer and the peyote cactus. Peyote is obtained by a yearly pilgrimage to an area called Wirikuta, where it is harvested with great ceremony.^[49]

Another distinct group living in the state is foreign temporary residents or expats, the overwhelming majority of which are from the United States and Canada, concentrated in and around the small town of Ajijic by Lake Chapala.^[38] The Lake Chapala area has the largest population of Americans outside of the United States. The phenomenon began at the beginning of the 20th century. Cars with U.S. plates are not uncommon and many signs are in English and Spanish. There are no official numbers but the number of ex-pats in the area is estimated at 20,000. Half of these are from the US with most of the rest from Canada and some from European and Asian countries. Most are retirees, although there is a notable artist community. In the winter, the number of foreigners in the area can reach 50,000.^[50] Another area popular with foreigners is Lagos de Moreno.^[16]

According to the 2020 Census, 1.67% of Jalisco’s population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.^[51]

Culture

[edit]

The idiom Jalisco es México (“Jalisco is Mexico”) is commonly used to refer to how many of the things which are typically associated with Mexico have their origins in Jalisco. These include mariachis, rodeos called charreadas and jaripeos, dresses with wide skirts decorated with ribbons, the Mexican hat dance, tequila, and the wide-brimmed sombrero hat.^[10][20]

Mariachi and other music

[edit]

Mexico’s best known music, mariachi, is still strongly associated with the state within Mexico, although mariachi bands are popular in many parts of the country. It is a myth that the origin of the name comes from the French word for marriage, as the word existed before the French Intervention in Mexico. Its true origin is unknown but one theory states that it has an indigenous origin. Another postulates that it comes from a local pronunciation of a common mariachi song “María ce son”. It is thought to have originated from the town of Cocula, and this kind of band, with variations, spread into Sinaloa, Michoacán, Colima, Nayarit and Zacatecas. The music became most developed in and around the city of Guadalajara,^[52] which has a Mariachi Festival in September.^[16]

Other common folk music in the state is the jarabe and the son. The jarabe is a type of music which began as a type of hymn especially to the Virgin of Guadalupe. During the Mexican War of Independence, this style was adopted by the insurgents for secular music as well. Some example of famous traditional songs in this style include “Los Enanos”, “El Gato”, “El Palo” and “El Perico”. However, the most famous song is the “Jarabe Tapatío”. The word jarabe is thought to come from the Arabic word “sharab” which means syrup or something sweet. The musical style has its roots in Andalucia, Spain and was transplanted to Mexico.^[18] The jarabe is mostly associated with Jalisco but it is also popular in a number of other western states such as Nayarit, Colima and Guanajuato. Sones are particularly popular in the south of the state. Some traditional ones from Jalisco include El Son de la Madrugada, El Son de las Alanzas, El Son del la Negra and El Son de las Copetonas.^[53]

Clothing and dance

[edit]

The traditional ranch style clothing of Jalisco is an imitation of Spanish dress that the women of the court wore. The original was heavy in expensive lace and ribbons, but the Jalisco version focused on multicolored ribbons, as well as being made from cotton instead of silk and brocades. The popularity of this dress grew during the Mexican Revolution to various parts of the country, as it was worn by a number of famous female soldiers of the time. Today, it is considered one type of traditional Mexican dress, and is mostly worn for dancing to sons and jarabes. Another style of dress is the Jalisco ribbon dress, which consists of an ample skirt in a number of bright colors. The bottom ruffle generally measures up to 35 cm (14 in) wide, onto which are placed ten strips of ribbons about 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide in colors that contrast with that of the skirt. The blouse is usually of the same color as the skirt with sleeves extending to the elbows and also decorated with ribbons, especially around the collar. The ribbon dress and other type of folk dress are most often worn during traditional dances in special ceremonies.^[53]

There are many differences in traditional Mexican costumes based on the states or regions of the country of Mexico. Each state has a distinct style of dancing but most importantly way of dressing. The style of dress for Jalisco goes back to the mid-1800s up to the year 1910, and draws its inspiration from 20th century European fashion, mainly the French.^[54] In Jalisco, the traditional dress is known as the escaramuza dress, ranchera dress, or simply the ribbon dress.^[55][56] The cotton fabric of the dress keeps the wearer cool, and is often brightly colored and adorned with ribbons. The dress has a wide skirt designed to lift while dancing, as well as allowing for maximum movement. It has a very high neckline with long sleeves, all tiered with ruffles. For other touches of details the dress has embroidering details on the skirt, neckline, and top area of the dress. Accessories are also frequent additions. One of those accessories is the hairstyle, normally consisting of two braids adorned with bright ribbons. Another is the makeup, usually in bright colors to match the dress. Lastly, a major accessory which is also an important part of traditional dance are the heels worn. These heels make loud noise when they hit the ground, and often help provide the beat for dances.^[57]

Tequila

[edit]

Tequila is a hard liquor which comes from a small region of Jalisco and which is made from the blue agave plant. It is the most famous type of mezcal produced in Mexico, and the only mezcal which is produced industrially with strict standards. The tequila industry supports large scale cultivation of the blue agave, with about 200,000 people employed through it directly or indirectly. It is named after a small town northwest of the city of Guadalajara in the center of where it is produced and the native region of the blue agave. The plant was used in pre-Hispanic times to make a ceremonial drink. The Spanish used the sweet heart of the mature plant, called a piña (literally pineapple) to create a fermented and distilled beverage. The first person to have official permission to make and sell the liquor was José Antonio Cuervo in 1758. In 1888, the first license to export was given to the Sauza family. The drink’s popularity rose with the introduction of the railroad, facilitating its shipping. It comes in three styles, blanco (unaged), reposado (aged in oak barrels two months up to one year) and añejo which is aged in oak barrels for a minimum of one year and a maximum of three years. There is also extra anejo aged for a minimum of three years.^[58] In the year 2000 the National Museum of Tequila, dedicated to the Tequila was inaugurated.

Cuisine

[edit]

The pre-Hispanic cuisine of the state features: fish from the various lakes, birds including wild turkey often eaten with salsas made from a wide variety of ground or crushed chili peppers. The Spanish introduced European staples of bread, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, dairy products, rice and various fruits and vegetables. The European settlers quickly adopted local foodstuffs such as chili peppers and tomatoes to create hybrid dishes such as barbacoa and puchero. Accepting corn as a staple, the Spanish created today’s enchiladas, quesadillas and gorditas. They also adopted pre-Hispanic tamales, but these were significantly altered with the addition of large quantities of lard.^[16] Tonalá is said to be the origin of pozole, and it is claimed that the local Tonaltecas originally prepared it with human flesh as religious rite.^[16]

Classic dishes for the area include local versions of pozole, sopitos, menudo, guacamole, cuachala, birria, pollo a la valenciana and tortas ahogadas. Birria is a meat stew made with roasted chili peppers, spices and with either goat, mutton or beef. Tortas ahogadas are pork sandwiches on French rolls which are covered in a tomato and chili pepper sauce.^[16] Common street foods include sopes, tacos, enchiladas tapitíos.^[16][59]

Tapalpa is known for its Borrego al pastor (grilled mutton); Cocul and Ciudad Guzmán are known for birria; the Lake Chapala area is known for a dish called charales and Guadalajara is known for tortas ahogadas.^[18] Sweets include alfajor, squash seeds with honey, coconut candies, buñuelos and fruits conserved in syrup. Drinks include tequila, aquamiel, pulque, tejuino and fruit drinks.^[59] Raicilla is a drink made along the coast. Tuba is made in Autlán de Navarro. Rompope is made in Sayula and Tapalpa, and tejuino is most common in the center of the state.^[18]

Along the coast, seafood is prominent. Some popular seafood preparations include shrimp breaded with coconut, and rollo del mar, which is a fish fillet stuffed with chopped shrimp and octopus, rolled and sometimes wrapped in bacon and covered in either a chili pepper or almond sauce.^[16] Puerto Vallarta has become a gourmet dining attraction as the site of the Mexican Gastronomy Fair held each November. It was a fishing village before a tourist destination and the simple grilled fish dish called ‘pescado zarandeado’ is still popular.^[16]

Catholic faith

[edit]

Jalisco is home to three highly venerated images of the Virgin Mary which were created in the 16th century and referred to as “sisters.” These are the images found in San Juan de los Lagos, Zapopan and Talpa, with the first two the best known in Mexico.^[60]

The image at San Juan de Los Lagos has made this small town one of the most-visited pilgrimage sites in Mexico, receiving about seven million visitors each year from all parts of the country. While this image is most often referred to by the place name, she is also called by her native name Cihiuapilli, which means “Great Lady.” The church housing the image is filled with folk paintings called “ex votos” or “retablos,” which are created to petition the Virgin or to offer thanks for favors received.

This image of the Virgin Mary dates from the early 16th century and believed to have been brought to San Juan de Los Lagos by missionaries from Michoacán. The first major miracle attributed to the image occurred in 1623 when a child was revived after being accidentally stuck with spears. The first building dedicated to the image was constructed in 1643, but the current one was finished in 1779. In 1904, the pope granted permission to crown the image and the church received official cathedral status in 1972. Pope John Paul II visited the image in 1990.^[61]

The Virgin of Zapopan has her own basilica in the city of that name, but the image spends about half the year traveling to the various parishes of Guadalajara proper. According to legend, thunderstorms in the Guadalajara area were so strong that they killed church bell ringers. The origin of the image’s yearly travels was a desire to protect these communities from destruction. Today, the Virgin of Zapopan still travels to the cathedral of Guadalajara every year to spend the rainy season there from June through September. While in Guadalajara, the image travels among the various churches there, accompanied by dancers, musicians and other faithful. In early October, the image is returned to the Zapopan basilica with much fanfare as a long procession in which the image is carried by foot.^[60]

Economy

[edit]

Main article: Economy of Jalisco

The economy of the state accounts for 6.3% of Mexico’s GDP.^[34] It is ranked third in socioeconomic indicators behind Nuevo León and the Federal District of Mexico City.^[62] The main sectors of the economy are commerce, restaurants and hotels at 26.1%, services at 21.5%, manufacturing (food processing, bottling and tobacco) at 19.4%, transport, storage and communications at 11.8%, financial services and real estate at 11.2%, agriculture, forestry and fishing at 5.5%, and construction at 4.4%.^[63] Jalisco earns just under six percent of Mexico foreign earnings from tourism and employment from the various multinational corporations located in the state,^[62] exporting more than $5 billion annually to 81 countries and ranks first among the states in agribusiness, computers and the manufacturing of jewelry.^[20]

Just over 57% of the population of the state is economically active, the sixth highest percentage in Mexico. 96.6% of this population has employment, of which 15.88% are employed in agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing, 28.96% are in mining, utilities and construction and 54.82% are in commerce and services.^[62] Jalisco received US$508.5 million in foreign direct investment in 2010, representing 6.5% of Mexico’s total FDI. The manufacturing industry was the most important for the state in 2010, followed by the food and hotel industry.^[64]

The economic center of the state is Guadalajara, with parts of the metro area having living standards comparable to that of the first world, however, on its periphery there is still significant poverty.^[42] Guadalajara’s economy is based on industry, especially electronics and cybernetics, much of which is located just outside the city center. These industries account for about 75% of the state’s production of goods. The major employers are industry (in general), commerce and services.^[42] Guadalajara drives the state’s economic growth, making Jalisco third in construction in the country.^[62]

Mining developed only in Bolaños, El Barqueño in Guachinango, Pihuamo, Talpa de Allede and Comaja de Corona in Lagos de Moreno and still have active mining. There are important deposits of granite, marble, sandstone and obsidian.^[37]

Industry mostly concentrated in the Guadalajara metro area, which has large industrial parks such as El Bosque I, El Bosque II, Guadalajara Industrial Tecnológico, Eco Park, Vallarta, Parque de Tecnología en Electrónica, King Wei and Villa Hidalgo.^[62] In food processing, it is first in the production of chocolate products, second in bottling, soft drink production, cement, lime and plaster, third in the production of chemical products.^[62]

Tourism

[edit]

The most important tourist areas in the state are Puerto Vallarta, the Guadalajara metro area, the Costalegre and Los Altos de Jalisco Regions, Lake Chapala and the Montaña Region.^[18]

The Guadalajara area’s attractions are principally in the city itself and Zapopan, Tlaquepaque and Tonalá.^[18] Although the area is mostly urban there are also rural zones such as the Bosque La Primavera, El Diente and Ixtepete.^[65]

One of the most famous tourism attractions of the state is the “Tequila Express” which runs from Guadalajara to the town of Tequila. This tour includes visits to tequila distilleries which often offer regional food in buffets accompanied by mariachi musicians and regional dancers.^[16] The Tequila Valley area is known for the liquor named after it, made from the blue agave plant. This valley is filled with tequila haciendas, archeological sites and modern distillation facilities. The main historical centers are the towns of Tequila, Cocula, Magdalena and Teuchitlán. The aggregate of the agave fields in this area have been named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.^[66]

Puerto Vallarta on Banderas Bay has beaches such as Los Muertos, Conchas Chinas, Las Glorias, Mismaloya, Punta Negra and Playa de Oro with large hotels, bars, restaurants and discothèques.^[18] It has a population of about 250,000 and is the sixth largest city in Jalisco. This bay was a haven for pirates in the 16th century, but today it is one of Mexico’s favored diving destinations because of the range of marine life and an average water temperature of between 24.4 and 30.3 °C. Expert level diving is practiced at Marieta Islands at the edge of the bay.^[38] On land, one major attraction is the city’s nightlife.^[67] Ecotourism and extreme sports such as bungee jumping and parasailing are available.^[38] Jalisco’s coast includes other beaches such as Careyes, Melaque and Tamarindo along with world-famous Puerto Vallarta. The north part of the coast is called the Costalegre de Jalisco.^[67] The Costalegre area is classified as an ecological tourism corridor with beaches such as Melaque, Barra de Navidad, Tenacatita, Careyes, El Tecuán, Punta Perula, Chamela and El Tamarindo. All of these have five-star hotels along with bars, restaurants and discothèques.^[18] Many coast areas offer activities such as scuba, snorkeling, kayaking, and sports fishing. Majahuas is a marine turtle sanctuary in which visitors may liberate newly hatched turtles into the sea. Puerto Vallarta is known for its nightlife along with its beaches.^[67]

The popularity of Lake Chapala began with President Porfirio Díaz who chose the area as a getaway in the late 19th century. This made it popular with Mexico’s elite and established the Lake’s reputation.^[30] Lake Chapala tourism started in the 19th century and steadily pick up in the early 20th century.^[68] Beginning in the 1950s, due to the pleasant climate and attractive scenery, a substantial colony of retirees, including many from the United States and Canada, has been established along the Lake’s shore,^[69] particularly in the town of Ajijic, located just west of the city of Chapala. An estimated 30,000 foreign residents live along the shores of Lake Chapala.^[70]

Today, Lake Chapala is popular as a weekend getaway for residents of Guadalajara.^[16] The Lake is a tourist attraction on which people sail, fish and jet ski. The Lake is surrounded by a number of towns including Chapala, Jocotepec, Ixtlahuacán de los Membrillos, Ocotlán and Tizapán el Alto. The area has been promoting ecotourism with activities such as rock climbing, rappelling, hiking, golf and tennis along with spas/water parks such as those in Chapala, Jamay, La Barca and Jocotepec.^[71] The Norte Region is the home of the Wixarika or Huichols although there are significant communities of an ethnicity called the Cora as well. The area is known for its indigenous culture as well as its rugged, isolated terrain. Major communities in the area include Bolaños and Huejúcar. There is also ecotourism in the way of rappelling, rafting and camping.^[72]

The Zonas Altos refer to the area’s altitude. The area is marked by parish churches with tall towers. Religion is important in this area, with many pilgrimages, festivals, charreds. It is home to one of the most important pilgrimage sites of Mexico, that of the Virgin of San Juan de los Lagos.^[73] Religious tourism is a major economic activity, with the town of San Juan de los Lagos completely dependent on serving the nearly seven million who visit each year.^[73][61] The area also has old haciendas open to tourism. There is some tequila production as well although most occurs in the Valles Region.^[73]

The Montaña or Mountain Region contains mountain chains such as the Sierra de Tapalpa, Sierra del Tigre and the Sierra del Halo. The main communities in this area are Tapalpa and Mazamitla. The area is filled with forests and green valleys and the state promotes ecotourism in the area with activities such as rappelling, mountain biking, parasailing and hiking. The area’s gastronomy includes local sweets and dairy products.^[74]

The Sierra Region is between the Centro and coastal areas. Mountains chains in this area include the Sierra de Quila and the Sierra de Manatlán.^[75]

Agriculture

[edit]

Agriculture mostly developed in the tropical and subtropical areas.^[37] Jalisco’s agriculture accounts for 8.44% of the country’s production according to GDP. It produces twenty percent of the country’s corn, twelve percent of its sugar, twenty five percent of its eggs, twenty percent of its pork, seventeen percent of its dairy products and over twelve percent of its honey, domestic fowl and cattle. It is the country’s number one producer of seed corn, corn for animal feed, agave for tequila, limes, fresh milk, eggs, pigs and cattle. It ranks second in the production of sugar, watermelons, honey and barley.^[62] 5,222,542 hectares are dedicated to forestry, with eighty percent covered in conifers and broad-leafed trees. A number of these forests contains commercially important hardwoods. On the coasts, there is commercial fishing for shrimp, crabs and tilapia.^[37]

The tequila industry is very important to the state as the drink has the international place-of-origin designation. The tequila-producing area of Jalisco is a tourist attraction, with more than seventeen million visitors each year, with an estimated value of over ten million pesos per year.^[38][62] The tequila industry supports large-scale cultivation of the blue agave, with about 200,000 people employed through it directly or indirectly. It is the only mezcal which is produced industrially with strict norms for its production and origin.^[58]

Artisanry

[edit]

Another important sector of the economy is handcrafts, especially ceramics. Jalisco is the leader in Mexico by volume, quality and diversity of the produced exported which total more than 100 million dollars annually.^[62] Jalisco accounts for ten percent of all the handcrafts exported from Mexico. The most representative of the state are the ceramics of Tlaquepaque, Tonalá and Tuxpan, but other common items include the huarache sandals of Concepción de Buenos Aires, piteado from Colotlán, majolica pottery from Sayula, blown glass from Tlaquepaque and Tonalá, equipal chairs from Zacoalco de Torres, jorongo blankets from Talpa and the Los Altos Region and baskets from various parts of the state.^[18]

Media

[edit]

See also: List of television stations in Jalisco

The state has seventy-nine radio stations of which seventy-three are commercial enterprises; forty-seven are AM and the rest FM. There are twenty-three television stations, three local and the rest belonging to national chains. There are seven^{[citation needed]} major newspapers El Financiero (de Occidente), El Informador, El Mural, El Occidental, Ocho Columnas, Público, Sol de Guadalajara and Siglo 21.^[76][77] There are four companies that provide cable and satellite television.^[78]

Education

[edit]

The average number of years of schooling for residents 15 and older is 8.8, higher than the national average of 8.6. Only 5.1% have no schooling whatsoever, with about the same percentage being illiterate and 58.1% have finished primary school (educación básica).^[79] Less than one percent has vocational training only, 18.5% have finished education media superior and 17.3% have a bachelor’s or higher.^[79]

The largest institution of higher education in the state is the University of Guadalajara which offers ninety-nine bachelor’s degrees and eighty-two post-graduate degrees.^[78] The university has its origins in the colonial period as the Colegio de Santo Tomás founded in 1591 by the Jesuits. When this order was expelled in 1767 the college closed and was reopened in 1791 as the Real y Literaria Universidad de Guadalajara, beginning with majors in medicine and law. During the 19th century, the university was in turmoil because of the struggle between Liberals and Conservatives, changing name between Instituto de Ciencias del Estado and the Universidad de Guadalajara, depending on who was in power. The name was settled to the latter in 1925 under reorganization. In the 1980s, it was reorganized again and expanded.^[80]

Jalisco has a total number of schools of 20,946, with 304 institutions of higher education.^[81] The state has 2,989 preschools, 5,903 primary schools, 1,254 middle schools, fifty vocational/technical schools and 271 high schools. Most, especially at the preschool and primary school levels are private followed by state-sponsored schools.^[78]

The second most important college is the Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara with fifty-two bachelors and thirty-eight post graduate degrees. Other institutions include the Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Occidente (ITESO), Universidad del Valle de Atemajac, Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Guadalajara, Universidad Panamericana and Centro Universitario Guadalajara Lamar^[78]

Transportation

[edit]

It is the second most important transportation hub.^[62] Most of the roads in the state radiate outwards from Guadalajara. Until relatively recently, reaching the capital meant traveling down and up steep canyons on narrow winding roads in slow traffic filled with trucks. Today, most of these gorges are traversed by long bridges, making travel far easier.^[22] The major highways in the state include the Guadalajara-Saltillo, Guadalajara-Nogales, Guadalajara-Tampico, Guadalajara–Barra de Navidad, Guadalajara-Colima, Guadalajara-Mexico City, Guadalajara–Ciudad Juárez, Guadalajara-Aguascalientes, Guadalajara-Tepic, Macrolibramiento Sur de Guadalajara and, Guadalajara-Lagos de Moreno.^[78]

The state has a total of 1,180 km (730 mi) of rail line. The main bus station is the Central de Autobuses of Guadalajara which serves state, national and international destinations. Most destinations are in the west of Mexico and Mexico City.^[78]

There are two main airports in the state serving commercial airlines. The largest is Guadalajara International Airport, located in the municipality of Tlajomulco de Zuñiga and serving the Guadalajara Metropolitan Area. The second largest is Puerto Vallarta International Airport, serving both Puerto Vallarta and the Bahía de Banderas municipality in the neighboring state of Nayarit. Additionally, the Zapopan Air Force Base, also located in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Area, serves as a military airport and is home to the Mexican Air Force Academy. There are a number of smaller, general aviation airports in other communities across the state, including Francisco Primo de Verdad National Airport in Lagos de Moreno.

Government

[edit]

See also: Municipalities of Jalisco

Further information: Governor of Jalisco

The state government consists of a governor, a unicameral legislature and a state judiciary branch.^[42] The Governor of Jalisco is the chief executive of the state government; the current governor serving is Enrique Alfaro Ramírez. The Congress of Jalisco is the legislature of the state government and meets in Guadalajara.

Jalisco elects 3 senators to the Senate of the Republic and 20 deputies to the Chamber of Deputies, the upper and lower houses of the national Congress of the Union.

The capital of the state is Guadalajara which is also its cultural and economic center. The Guadalajara metropolitan area consists of the city along with seven other municipalities in the Center region of the state. This is the second most populous metro area in Mexico after that of Mexico City.^[42] Six of the municipalities are considered to be the area’s nucleus: Guadalajara, El Salto, Tlajomulco de Zúñiga, Tlaquepaque, Tonalá and Zapopan, with two others, Juanacatlán and Ixtlahuacán de los Membrillos as suburbs. These municipalities extend over an area of 2,734 km² (1,055.60 sq mi) with a population density of 133.2 inhabitants per hectare (2005). The most highly concentrated municipality in the zone is the municipality of Guadalajara, followed by Zapopan.^[42]

• State Government of Jalisco
• Supreme Court of Jalisco
• Palacio de Velasco, seat of the Secretariat of Finance
• Palacio Legislativo, seat of the Congress of Jalisco
• Edificio Camarena, seat of the Jalisco Court of First Instance
• Edificio José Cuervo, seat of the Jalisco Treasury

Administrative regions

[edit]

The state as a whole consists of 125 municipalities which were organized into twelve administrative regions in 1996.^[82]

#	Region	Seat	Area (km2)[83]	Area (%)	Population (2010)[83]	Population (%)
1	Norte	Colotlán	10,305	12.9%	78,835	1.1%
2	Altos Norte	Lagos de Moreno	8,882	11.1%	383,317	5.2%
3	Altos Sur	Tepatitlán de Morelos	6,667	8.3%	384,144	5.2%
4	Ciénega	La Barca	4,892	6.1%	503,297	6.8%
5	Sureste	Tamazula de Gordiano	7,124	8.9%	116,416	1.6%
6	Sur	Zapotlán el Grande	5,650	7.1%	332,411	4.5%
7	Sierra de Amula	El Grullo	4,240	5.3%	95,680	1.3%
9	Costa Norte	Puerto Vallarta	5,985	7.5%	300,760	4.1%
10	Sierra Occidental	Mascota	8,381	10.5%	61,257	0.8%
11	Valles	Ameca	6,004	7.5%	345,438	4.7%
12	Centro	Guadalajara	5,003	6.2%	4,578,700	62.3%
13	Costa Sur	Autlán de Navarro	7,004	8.7%	170,427	2.3%
Total	Jalisco	–	80,137	100%	7,350,682	100%

Altos Norte has eight municipalities: Villa Hidalgo, Unión de San Antonio, Teocaltiche, San Juan de los Lagos, San Diego de Alejandría, Ojuelos de Jalisco, Lagos de Moreno and Encarnación de Díaz.^[35]

Altos Sur consists of twelve municipalities: Yahualica de González Gallo, Valle de Guadalupe, Tepatitlán de Morelos, San Miguel el Alto, San Julián, San Ignacio Cerro Gordo, Mexticacán, Jesús María, Jalostotitlán, Cañadas de Obregón, Arandas and Acatic.^[35]

The Centro Region consists of fourteen municipalities: Zapotlanejo, Zapopan, Villa Corona, Tonalá, Tlaquepaque, Tlajomulco de Zúñiga, San Cristóbal de la Barranca, Juanacatlán, Ixtlahuacán del Río, Ixtlahuacán de los Membrillos, Guadalajara, El Salto, Cuquío and Acatlán de Juárez.^[35]

The Ciénega Region contains thirteen municipalities: Zapotlán del Rey, Tuxcueca, Tototlán, Tizapán El Alto, Poncitlán, Ocotlán, La Barca, Jocotepec, Jamay, Degollado, Chapala, Ayotlán and Atotonilco El Alto.^[35]

The Costa Norte has three municipalities: Tomatlán, Puerto Vallarta and Cabo Corrientes.^[35]

The Costa Sur has six municipalities: Villa Purificación, La Huerta, Cuautitlán de García Barragán, Cihuatlán, Casimiro Castillo and Autlán de Navarro.^[35]

The Norte Region has ten municipalities: Villa Guerrero, Totatiche, Santa María de los Ángeles, San Martín de Bolaños, Mezquitic, Huejúcar, Huejuquilla El Alto, Colotlán, Chimaltitán, and Bolaños.^[35]

The Sierra de Amula has eleven municipalities: Unión de Tula, Tuxcacuesco, Tonaya, Tenamaxtlán, Tecolotlán, Juchitlán, El Limón, El Grullo, Ejutla, Chiquilistlán and Atengo.^[35]

The Sierra Occidental has eight municipalities: Talpa de Allende, San Sebastián del Oeste, Mixtlán, Mascota, Guachinango, Cuautla, Ayutla and Atenguillo.^[35]

The Sur Region has sixteen municipalities: Amacueca, Atemajac de Brizuela, Atoyac, Gómez Farías, San Gabriel, Sayula, Tapalpa, Techaluta de Montenegro, Teocuitatlán de Corona, Tolimán, Tonila, Túxpan, Zacoalco de Torres, Zapotiltic, Zapotitlán de Vadillo, and Zapotlán el Grande.^[35]

The Sureste Region has ten municipalities: Valle de Juárez, Tecalitlán, Tamazula de Gordiano, Santa María del Oro, Quitupan, Pihuamo, Mazamitla, La Manzanilla de La Paz, Jilotlán de los Dolores and Concepción de Buenos Aires.^[35]

The Valles Region has fourteen municipalities: Teuchitlán, Tequila, Tala, San Martín Hidalgo, San Marco, San Juanito de Escobedo, Magdalena Municipality, Jalisco, Hostotipaquillo, Etzatlán, El Arenal, Cocula, Ameca, Amatitán and Ahualulco de Mercado.^[35]

Sports

[edit]

Guadalajara is home to four professional football teams:, Club Universidad de Guadalajara, Tecos FC and Atlas, and C.D. Guadalajara (more popularly known as Chivas), which is one of the most popular teams in Mexico and one of the most valuable teams in the world.^[84]

Charreada, the Mexican form of rodeo and closely tied to mariachi music, is popular in Jalisco.^[85]

The state hosted the XVI Pan American Games in October 2011, the largest sporting event to be held outside of Mexico City with more than forty nations from the Americas participating. The opening ceremonies were held at Estadio Omnilife in Guadalajara, but sporting events were held in various parts of the state including Puerto Vallarta

Ice hockey (or simply hockey in North America) is a team sport played on ice skates, usually on an ice skating rink with lines and markings specific to the sport. It belongs to a family of sports called hockey. Two opposing teams use ice hockey sticks to control, advance, and shoot a vulcanized rubber hockey puck into the other team’s net. Each goal is worth one point. The team with the highest score after an hour of playing time is declared the winner; ties are broken in overtime or a shootout. In a formal game, each team has six skaters on the ice at a time, barring any penalties, including a goaltender. It is a full contact game and one of the more physically demanding team sports.^[1][2]

The modern sport of ice hockey was developed in Canada, most notably in Montreal, where the first indoor game was played on March 3, 1875. It draws influence from shinty which originated in Scotland, as well as field hockey which originated in England.^[3] Some characteristics of ice hockey, such as the length of the ice rink and the use of a puck, have been retained to this day. Amateur ice hockey leagues began in the 1880s, and professional ice hockey originated around 1900. The Stanley Cup, emblematic of ice hockey club supremacy, was initially commissioned in 1892 as the “Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup” and was first awarded in 1893 to recognise the Canadian amateur champion and later became the championship trophy of the National Hockey League (NHL). In the early 1900s, the Canadian rules were adopted by the Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace, in Paris, France, the precursor to the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). The sport was played for the first time at the Olympics during the 1920 Summer Games—today it is a mainstay at the Winter Olympics. In 1994, ice hockey was officially recognized as Canada’s national winter sport.^[4]

While women also played during the game’s early formative years, it was not until organizers began to officially remove body checking from female ice hockey beginning in the mid-1980s that it began to gain greater popularity, which by then had spread to Europe and a variety of other countries. The IIHF Women’s World Championship was held in 1990, and women’s play was introduced into the Olympics in 1998.

History

[edit]

Main article: History of ice hockey

Ice hockey is believed to have evolved from simple stick and ball games played in the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain, Ireland, and elsewhere, primarily bandy, hurling, and shinty. The North American sport of lacrosse, derived from tribal Native American games, was also influential. The former games were brought to North America and several similar winter games using informal rules developed, such as shinny and ice polo, but later were absorbed into a new organized game with codified rules which today is ice hockey.

Game

[edit]

While the general characteristics of the game remain constant, the exact rules depend on the particular code of play being used. The two most important codes are those of the IIHF and the NHL.^[5][6] Both of these codes, and others, originated from Canadian rules of ice hockey of the early 20th century.^[7]

Ice hockey is played on a hockey rink. During normal play, there are six players on ice skates on the ice per side, one of them being the goaltender. The objective of the game is to score goals by shooting a hard vulcanized rubber disc, the puck, into the opponent’s goal net at the opposite end of the rink. The players use their sticks to pass or shoot the puck.

With certain restrictions, players may redirect the puck with any part of their body. Players may not hold the puck in their hand and are prohibited from using their hands to pass the puck to their teammates unless they are in the defensive zone. Players can knock a puck out of the air with their hands to themselves. Players are prohibited from kicking the puck into the opponent’s goal, though unintentional redirections off their body or equipment, including skates, are permitted. Players may not intentionally bat the puck into the net with their hands or any part of their body.^[8]

Hockey is an off-side game, meaning that forward passes are allowed, unlike in rugby. Before the 1930s, hockey was an on-side game, meaning that only backward passes were allowed. Those rules emphasized individual stick-handling to drive the puck forward. With the arrival of offside rules, the forward pass transformed hockey into a true team sport, where individual performance diminished in importance relative to team play, which could now be coordinated over the entire surface of the ice as opposed to merely rearward players.^[9]

The six players on each team are typically divided into three forwards, two defencemen, and one goaltender. The term skaters typically applies to all players except goaltenders. The forward positions consist of a centre and two wingers: a left wing and a right wing. Forwards often play together as units or lines, with the same three forwards always playing together. The defencemen usually stay together as a pair generally divided between left and right. Left and right side wingers or defencemen are generally positioned on the side on which they carry their stick. A substitution of an entire unit at once is called a line change. Teams typically employ alternate sets of forward lines and defensive pairings when short-handed or on a power play. The goaltender stands in a, usually blue, semi-circle called the crease in the defensive zone keeping pucks out of the goal. Substitutions are permitted at any time during the game, although during a stoppage of play the home team is permitted the final change. When players are substituted during play, it is called changing on the fly. An NHL rule added in the 2005–06 season prevents a team from making any player substitutions after they ice the puck.^[10]

The boards surrounding the ice help keep the puck in play and they can also be used as tools to play the puck. Players are permitted to bodycheck opponents into the boards to stop progress. The referees, linesmen and the outsides of the goal are “in play” and do not stop the game when the puck or players either bounce into or collide with them. Play can be stopped if the goal is knocked out of position. Play often proceeds for minutes without interruption. After a stoppage, play is restarted with a faceoff. Two players face each other and an official drops the puck to the ice, where the two players attempt to gain control of the puck. Markings (circles) on the ice indicate the locations for the faceoff and guide the positioning of players.

Three major rules of play in ice hockey limit the movement of the puck: offside, icing, and the puck going out of play.

• A player is offside if he enters his opponent’s zone before the puck itself.
• Under many situations, a player may not “ice the puck”, which means shooting the puck all the way across both the centre line and the opponent’s goal line.
• The puck goes out of play whenever it goes past the perimeter of the ice rink (onto the player benches, over the glass, or onto the protective netting above the glass) and a stoppage of play is called by the officials using whistles. It does not matter if the puck comes back onto the ice surface from outside of the rink, because the puck is considered dead once it leaves the perimeter of the rink. The referee may also blow the whistle for a stoppage in play if the puck is jammed along the boards when two or more players are battling for the puck for a long time, or if the puck is stuck on the back of any of the two nets for a period of time.

Under IIHF rules, each team may carry a maximum of 20 players and two goaltenders on their roster. NHL rules restrict the total number of players per game to 18, plus two goaltenders. In the NHL, the players are usually divided into four lines of three forwards, and into three pairs of defencemen. On occasion, teams may elect to substitute an extra defenceman for a forward. The seventh defenceman may play as a substitute defenceman, spend the game on the bench, or if a team chooses to play four lines then this seventh defenceman may see ice-time on the fourth line as a forward.

Periods and overtime

[edit]

A professional ice hockey game consists of three periods of twenty minutes, the clock running only when the puck is in play.^[11] There is a rest period between the three periods.^[11] The teams change ends after each period of play, including overtime. Recreational leagues and children’s leagues often play shorter games, generally with three shorter periods of play.

If a tie occurs in tournament play, as well as in the NHL playoffs, North Americans favour sudden death overtime, in which the teams continue to play twenty-minute periods until a goal is scored. Up until the 1999–2000 season, regular-season NHL games were settled with a single five-minute sudden death period with five players (plus a goalie) per side, with both teams awarded one point in the standings in the event of a tie. With a goal, the winning team would be awarded two points and the losing team none (just as if they had lost in regulation). The total elapsed time from when the puck first drops, is about 2 hours and 20 minutes for a 60-minute game.

From the 1999–2000 until the 2003–04 seasons, the National Hockey League decided ties by playing a single five-minute sudden-death overtime period with each team having four skaters per side (plus the goalie). In the event of a tie, each team would still receive one point in the standings but in the event of a victory the winning team would be awarded two points in the standings and the losing team one point. The idea was to discourage teams from playing for a tie, since previously some teams might have preferred a tie and 1 point to risking a loss and zero points. The exception to this rule is if a team opts to pull their goalie in exchange for an extra skater during overtime and is subsequently scored upon (an empty net goal), in which case the losing team receives no points for the overtime loss. Since the 2015–16 season, the single five-minute sudden-death overtime session involves three skaters on each side. Since three skaters must always be on the ice in an NHL game, the consequences of penalties are slightly different from those during regulation play; any penalty during overtime that would result in a team losing a skater during regulation instead causes the other side to add a skater. Once the penalized team’s penalty ends, the penalized skater exits the penalty box and the teams continue at 4-on-4 until the next stoppage of play, at which point the teams return to three skaters per side.^[12]

International play and several North American professional leagues, including the NHL (in the regular season), now use an overtime period identical to that from 1999–2000 to 2003–04 followed by a penalty shootout. If the score remains tied after an extra overtime period, the subsequent shootout consists of three players from each team taking penalty shots. After these six total shots, the team with the most goals is awarded the victory. If the score is still tied, the shootout then proceeds to sudden death. Regardless of the number of goals scored by either team during the shootout, the final score recorded will award the winning team one more goal than the score at the end of regulation time. In the NHL if a game is decided in overtime or by a shootout the winning team is awarded two points in the standings and the losing team is awarded one point. Ties no longer occur in the NHL.

Overtime in the NHL playoffs differs from the regular season. In the playoffs there are no shootouts. If a game is tied after regulation, then a 20-minute period of 5-on-5 sudden-death overtime will be added. If the game is still tied after the overtime, another period is added until a team scores, which wins the match. Since 2019, the IIHF World Championships and the gold medal game in the Olympics use the same format, but in a 3-on-3 format.

Penalties

[edit]

Main article: Penalty (ice hockey)

In ice hockey, infractions of the rules lead to a play stoppage whereby the play is restarted at a faceoff. Some infractions result in a penalty on a player or team. In the simplest case, the offending player is sent to the penalty box and their team must play with one less player on the ice for a designated time. Minor penalties last for two minutes, major penalties last for five minutes, and a double minor penalty is two consecutive penalties of two minutes duration. A single minor penalty may be extended by two minutes for causing visible injury to the victimized player. This is usually when blood is drawn during high sticking. Players may be also assessed personal extended penalties or game expulsions for misconduct in addition to the penalty or penalties their team must serve. The team that has been given a penalty is said to be playing short-handed while the opposing team is on a power play.

A two-minute minor penalty is often charged for lesser infractions such as tripping, elbowing, roughing, high-sticking, delay of the game, too many players on the ice, boarding, illegal equipment, charging (leaping into an opponent or body-checking him after taking more than two strides), holding, holding the stick (grabbing an opponent’s stick), interference, hooking, slashing, kneeing, unsportsmanlike conduct (arguing a penalty call with referee, extremely vulgar or inappropriate verbal comments), “butt-ending” (striking an opponent with the knob of the stick), “spearing” (jabbing an opponent with the blade of the stick), or cross-checking. As of the 2005–2006 season, a minor penalty is also assessed for diving, where a player embellishes or simulates an offence. More egregious fouls may be penalized by a four-minute double-minor penalty, particularly those that injure the victimized player. These penalties end either when the time runs out or when the other team scores during the power play. In the case of a goal scored during the first two minutes of a double-minor, the penalty clock is set down to two minutes upon a score, effectively expiring the first minor penalty.

A skater cross-checking his opponent, checking him with the shaft of his stick with two hands.

A skater hooking his opponent, using his stick to restrain him.

These are examples of rule infractions in the sport; a penalty may be assessed against the players committing them.

Five-minute major penalties are called for especially violent instances of most minor infractions that result in intentional injury to an opponent, or when a minor penalty results in visible injury (such as bleeding), as well as for fighting. Major penalties are always served in full; they do not terminate on a goal scored by the other team. Major penalties assessed for fighting are typically offsetting, meaning neither team is short-handed and the players exit the penalty box upon a stoppage of play following the expiration of their respective penalties. The foul of boarding (defined as “check[ing] an opponent in such a manner that causes the opponent to be thrown violently in the boards”)^[13] is penalized either by a minor or major penalty at the discretion of the referee, based on the violent state of the hit. A minor or major penalty for boarding is often assessed when a player checks an opponent from behind and into the boards.

Some varieties of penalty do not require the offending team to play a man short. Concurrent five-minute major penalties in the NHL usually result from fighting. In the case of two players being assessed five-minute fighting majors, both the players serve five minutes without their team incurring a loss of player (both teams still have a full complement of players on the ice). This differs with two players from opposing sides getting minor penalties, at the same time or at any intersecting moment, resulting from more common infractions. In this case, both teams will have only four skating players (not counting the goaltender) until one or both penalties expire (if one penalty expires before the other, the opposing team gets a power play for the remainder of the time); this applies regardless of current pending penalties. In the NHL, a team always has at least three skaters on the ice. Thus, ten-minute misconduct penalties are served in full by the penalized player, but his team may immediately substitute another player on the ice unless a minor or major penalty is assessed in conjunction with the misconduct (a two-and-ten or five-and-ten). In this case, the team designates another player to serve the minor or major; both players go to the penalty box, but only the designee may not be replaced, and he is released upon the expiration of the two or five minutes, at which point the ten-minute misconduct begins. In addition, game misconducts are assessed for deliberate intent to inflict severe injury on an opponent (at the officials’ discretion), or for a major penalty for a stick infraction or repeated major penalties. The offending player is ejected from the game and must immediately leave the playing surface (he does not sit in the penalty box); meanwhile, if an additional minor or major penalty is assessed, a designated player must serve out of that segment of the penalty in the box (similar to the above-mentioned “two-and-ten”). In some rare cases, a player may receive up to nineteen minutes in penalties for one string of plays. This could involve receiving a four-minute double-minor penalty, getting in a fight with an opposing player who retaliates, and then receiving a game misconduct after the fight. In this case, the player is ejected and two teammates must serve the double-minor and major penalties.

A penalty shot is awarded to a player when the illegal actions of another player stop a clear scoring opportunity, most commonly when the player is on a breakaway. A penalty shot allows the obstructed player to pick up the puck on the centre red-line and attempt to score on the goalie with no other players on the ice, to compensate for the earlier missed scoring opportunity. A penalty shot is also awarded for a defender other than the goaltender covering the puck in the goal crease, a goaltender intentionally displacing his own goal posts during a breakaway to avoid a goal, a defender intentionally displacing his own goal posts when there is less than two minutes to play in regulation time or at any point during overtime, or a player or coach intentionally throwing a stick or other object at the puck or the puck carrier and the throwing action disrupts a shot or pass play.

Officials also stop play for puck movement violations, such as using one’s hands to pass the puck in the offensive end, but no players are penalized for these offences. The sole exceptions are deliberately falling on or gathering the puck to the body, carrying the puck in the hand, and shooting the puck out of play in one’s defensive zone (all penalized two minutes for delay of game).

In the NHL, a unique penalty applies to the goalies. The goalies now are forbidden to play the puck in the “corners” of the rink near their own net. This will result in a two-minute penalty against the goalie’s team. Only in the area in front of the goal line and immediately behind the net (marked by two red lines on either side of the net) can the goalie play the puck.

An additional rule that has never been a penalty, but was an infraction in the NHL before recent rules changes, is the two-line offside pass. Prior to the 2005–06 NHL season, play was stopped when a pass from inside a team’s defending zone crossed the centre line, with a face-off held in the defending zone of the offending team. Now, the centre line is no longer used in the NHL to determine a two-line pass infraction, a change that the IIHF had adopted in 1998. Players are now able to pass to teammates who are more than the blue and centre ice red line away.

The NHL has taken steps to speed up the game of hockey and create a game of finesse, by reducing the number of illegal hits, fights, and “clutching and grabbing” that occurred in the past. Rules are now more strictly enforced, resulting in more penalties, which provides more protection to the players and facilitates more goals being scored. The governing body for United States’ amateur hockey has implemented many new rules to reduce the number of stick-on-body occurrences, as well as other detrimental and illegal facets of the game (“zero tolerance”).

In men’s hockey, but not in women’s, a player may use his hip or shoulder to hit another player if the player has the puck or is the last to have touched it. This use of the hip and shoulder is called body checking. Not all physical contact is legal—in particular, hits from behind, hits to the head and most types of forceful stick-on-body contact are illegal.

A delayed penalty call occurs when an offence is committed by the team that does not have possession of the puck. In this circumstance the team with possession of the puck is allowed to complete the play; that is, play continues until a goal is scored, a player on the opposing team gains control of the puck, or the team in possession commits an infraction or penalty of their own. Because the team on which the penalty was called cannot control the puck without stopping play, it is impossible for them to score a goal. In these cases, the team in possession of the puck can pull the goalie for an extra attacker without fear of being scored on. It is possible for the controlling team to mishandle the puck into their own net. If a delayed penalty is signalled and the team in possession scores, the penalty is still assessed to the offending player, but not served. In 2012, this rule was changed by the United States’ National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) for college level hockey. In college games, the penalty is still enforced even if the team in possession scores.^[14]

Officials

[edit]

Main article: Official (ice hockey)

A typical game of hockey is governed by two to four officials on the ice, charged with enforcing the rules of the game. There are typically two linesmen who are mainly responsible for calling “offside” and “icing” violations, breaking up fights, and conducting faceoffs,^[15] and one or two referees,^[16] who call goals and all other penalties. Linesmen can report to the referee(s) that a penalty should be assessed against an offending player in some situations.^[17] The restrictions on this practice vary depending on the governing rules. On-ice officials are assisted by off-ice officials who act as goal judges, time keepers, and official scorers.

The most widespread system is the “three-man system”, which uses one referee and two linesmen. A less commonly used system is the two referee and one linesman system. This system is close to the regular three-man system except for a few procedure changes. Beginning with the National Hockey League, a number of leagues have implemented the “four-official system”, where an additional referee is added to aid in the calling of penalties normally difficult to assess by one referee. The system is used in every NHL game since 2001, at IIHF World Championships, the Olympics and in many professional and high-level amateur leagues in North America and Europe.

Officials are selected by the league they work for. Amateur hockey leagues use guidelines established by national organizing bodies as a basis for choosing their officiating staffs. In North America, the national organizing bodies Hockey Canada and USA Hockey approve officials according to their experience level as well as their ability to pass rules knowledge and skating ability tests. Hockey Canada has officiating levels I through VI.^[18] USA Hockey has officiating levels 1 through 4.^[19]

Equipment

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Main article: Ice hockey equipment

Protective gear

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Since men’s ice hockey is a full-contact sport, body checks are allowed so injuries are a common occurrence. Protective equipment is mandatory and is enforced in all competitive situations. This includes a helmet with either a visor or a full face mask, shoulder pads, elbow pads, mouth guard, protective gloves, heavily padded shorts (also known as hockey pants) or a girdle, athletic cup (also known as a jock, for males; and jill, for females), shin pads, skates, and (optionally) a neck protector.

Goaltenders

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Goaltenders use different equipment. With hockey pucks approaching them at speeds of up to 100 mph (160 km/h) they must wear equipment with more protection. Goaltenders wear specialized goalie skates (these skates are built more for movement side to side rather than forwards and backwards), a jock or jill, large leg pads (there are size restrictions in certain leagues), blocking glove, catching glove, a chest protector, a goalie mask, and a large jersey. Goaltenders’ equipment has continually become larger and larger, leading to fewer goals in each game and many official rule changes.

Ice skates

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Ice hockey skates are optimized for physical acceleration, speed and manoeuvrability. This includes rapid starts, stops, turns, and changes in skating direction. In addition, they must be rigid and tough to protect the skater’s feet from contact with other skaters, sticks, pucks, the boards, and the ice itself. Rigidity also improves the overall manoeuvrability of the skate. Blade length, thickness (width), and curvature (rocker/radius) (front to back) and radius of hollow (across the blade width) are quite different from speed or figure skates. Hockey players usually adjust these parameters based on their skill level, position, and body type. The blade width of most skates are about ¹⁄₈ inch (3.2 mm) thick.

Ice hockey stick

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Each player other than the goaltender carries a stick consisting of a long, relatively wide, and slightly curved flat blade, attached to a shaft. The curve itself has a big impact on its performance. A deep curve allows for lifting the puck easier while a shallow curve allows for easier backhand shots. The flex of the stick also impacts the performance. Typically, a less flexible stick is meant for a stronger player since the player is looking for the right balanced flex that allows the stick to flex easily while still having a strong “whip-back” which sends the puck flying at high speeds. It is quite distinct from sticks in other sports games and most suited to hitting and controlling the flat puck. Its unique shape contributed to the early development of the game.

The goaltender carries a stick of a different design, with a larger blade and a wide, flat shaft. This stick is primarily intended to block shots, but the goaltender may use it to play the puck as well.

Injury

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Ice hockey is a full-contact sport and carries a high risk of injury. Players are moving at speeds around approximately 20–30 mph (30–50 km/h) and much of the game revolves around the physical contact between the players. Skate blades, hockey sticks, shoulder contact, hip contact, and hockey pucks can all potentially cause injuries. Lace bite, an irritation felt on the front of the foot or ankle, is a common ice hockey injury.^[20]

Compared to athletes who play other sports, ice hockey players are at higher risk of overuse injuries and injuries caused by early sports specialization by teenagers.^[21]

According to the Hughston Health Alert, prior to the widespread use of helmets and face cages, “Lacerations to the head, scalp, and face are the most frequent types of injury [in hockey].”^[22]

One of the leading causes of head injury is body checking from behind. Due to the danger of delivering a check from behind, many leagues – including the NHL – have made this a major and game misconduct penalty. Another type of check that accounts for many of the player-to-player contact concussions is a check to the head resulting in a misconduct penalty (called “head contact”). In recent years, the NHL has implemented new rules which penalize and suspend players for illegal checks to the heads, as well as checks to unsuspecting players. Studies show that ice hockey causes 44.3% of all sports-related traumatic brain injuries among Canadian children.^[23]

Some teams in the Swiss National League are testing out systems that combine helmet-integrated sensors and analysis software to reveal a player’s ongoing brain injury risk during a game. These sensors provide players and coaches with real-time data on head impact strength, frequency, and severity.^[24] Furthermore, if the app determines that a particular impact has the potential to cause brain injury, it will alert the coach who can in turn seek medical attention for the individual.^[25][26]

Tactics

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Defensive tactics

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Defensive ice hockey tactics vary from more active to more conservative styles of play. One distinction is between man-to-man oriented defensive systems, and zonal oriented defensive systems, though a lot of teams use a combination between the two. Defensive skills involve pass interception, shot blocking, and stick checking (in which an attempt to take away the puck or cut off the puck lane is initiated by the stick of the defensive player). Tactical points of emphasis in ice hockey defensive play are concepts like “managing gaps” (gap control), “boxing out”‘ (not letting the offensive team go on the inside), and “staying on the right side” (of the puck). Another popular concept in ice hockey defensive tactics is that of playing a 200-foot game.^[27]

Checking

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Main articles: Checking (ice hockey) and Backcheck

An important defensive tactic is checking—attempting to take the puck from an opponent or to remove the opponent from play. Stick checking, sweep checking, and poke checking are legal uses of the stick to obtain possession of the puck. The neutral zone trap is designed to isolate the puck carrier in the neutral zone preventing him from entering the offensive zone. Body checking is using one’s shoulder or hip to strike an opponent who has the puck or who is the last to have touched it (the last person to have touched the puck is still legally “in possession” of it, although a penalty is generally called if he is checked more than two seconds after his last touch). Body checking is also a penalty in certain leagues in order to reduce the chance of injury to players. Often the term checking is used to refer to body checking, with its true definition generally only propagated among fans of the game.

One of the most important strategies for a team is their forecheck. Forechecking is the act of attacking the opposition in their defensive zone. Forechecking is an important part of the dump and chase strategy (i.e. shooting the puck into the offensive zone and then chasing after it). Each team uses their own unique system but the main ones are: 2–1–2, 1–2–2, and 1–4. The 2–1–2 is the most basic forecheck system where two forwards go in deep and pressure the opposition’s defencemen, the third forward stays high and the two defencemen stay at the blueline. The 1–2–2 is a bit more conservative system where one forward pressures the puck carrier and the other two forwards cover the oppositions’ wingers, with the two defencemen staying at the blueline. The 1–4 is the most defensive forecheck system, referred to as the neutral zone trap, where one forward applies pressure to the puck carrier around the oppositions’ blueline and the other four players stand basically in a line by their blueline in hopes the opposition will skate into one of them. Another strategy is the left wing lock, which has two forwards pressure the puck and the left wing and the two defencemen stay at the blueline.

Offensive tactics

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Main articles: Shot (ice hockey), Slapshot, Wrist shot, Snap shot (ice hockey), Backhand slapshot, Offside (ice hockey), Extra attacker, and Deke (ice hockey)

Offensive tactics include improving a team’s position on the ice by advancing the puck out of one’s zone towards the opponent’s zone, progressively by gaining lines, first your own blue line, then the red line and finally the opponent’s blue line. NHL rules instated for the 2006 season redefined the offside rule to make the two-line pass legal; a player may pass the puck from behind his own blue line, past both that blue line and the centre red line, to a player on the near side of the opponents’ blue line. Offensive tactics are designed ultimately to score a goal by taking a shot. When a player purposely directs the puck towards the opponent’s goal, he or she is said to “shoot” the puck.

A deflection is a shot that redirects a shot or a pass towards the goal from another player, by allowing the puck to strike the stick and carom towards the goal. A one-timer is a shot struck directly off a pass, without receiving the pass and shooting in two separate actions. Headmanning the puck, also known as breaking out, is the tactic of rapidly passing to the player farthest down the ice. Loafing, also known as cherry-picking, is when a player, usually a forward, skates behind an attacking team, instead of playing defence, in an attempt to create an easy scoring chance.

A team that is losing by one or two goals in the last few minutes of play will often elect to pull the goalie; that is, remove the goaltender and replace him or her with an extra attacker on the ice in the hope of gaining enough advantage to score a goal. This is a desperate act, as it sometimes leads to the opposing team extending their lead by scoring a goal in the empty net.

There are many other little tactics used in the game of hockey. Cycling moves the puck along the boards in the offensive zone to create a scoring chance by making defenders tired or moving them out of position. Pinching is when a defenceman pressures the opposition’s winger in the offensive zone when they are breaking out, attempting to stop their attack and keep the puck in the offensive zone. A saucer pass is a pass used when an opposition’s stick or body is in the passing lane. It is the act of raising the puck over the obstruction and having it land on a teammate’s stick.

A deke, short for “decoy”, is a feint with the body or stick to fool a defender or the goalie. Many modern players, such as Pavel Datsyuk, Sidney Crosby and Patrick Kane, have picked up the skill of “dangling”, which is fancier deking and requires more stick handling skills.

A tactic used by a player to keep possession of the puck is stick handling and also known as ragging.^[28] A player can use their stick to manipulate the puck out of reach of opposing players, while attempting to skate past them. When combined with deking or dangling skills, a player can attempt an end-to-end rush and make a solo play to score. Ragging is also a common penalty-killing tactic to use up time during a penalty’s duration.

Fights

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Main article: Fighting in ice hockey

Although fighting is officially prohibited in the rules, it is not an uncommon occurrence at the professional level, and its prevalence has been both a target of criticism and a considerable draw for the sport. At the professional level in North America fights are unofficially condoned. Enforcers and other players fight to demoralize the opposing players while exciting their own, as well as settling personal scores. A fight will also break out if one of the team’s skilled players gets hit hard or someone receives what the team perceives as a dirty hit. The amateur game penalizes fisticuffs more harshly, as a player who receives a fighting major is also assessed at least a 10-minute misconduct penalty (NCAA and some Junior leagues) or a game misconduct penalty and suspension (high school and younger, as well as some casual adult leagues).^[29]

Women’s ice hockey

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History

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The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with North America and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (February 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

See also: Canadian women’s ice hockey history and History of women’s ice hockey in the United States

Women began playing the game of ice hockey in the late 19th century. Several games were recorded in the 1890s in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The women of Lord Stanley’s family were known to participate in the game of ice hockey on the outdoor ice rink at Rideau Hall, the residence of Canada’s Governor General.^[30]

The earliest available records of women’s ice hockey were in the late 19th-century in Canada. Much like the men’s game, women had previously been playing a conglomeration of stick-and-ball ice games. As with men’s hockey, the women’s game developed at first without an organizing body. A tournament in 1902 between Montreal and Trois-Rivières was billed as the first women’s ice hockey championship tournament.^[31] Several tournaments, such as at the Banff Winter Carnival, were held in the early 20th century with numerous women’s teams such as the Seattle Vamps and Vancouver Amazons.^[32] Organizations started to develop in the 1920s, such as the Ladies Ontario Hockey Association in Canada, and later, the Dominion Women’s Amateur Hockey Association.

Starting in Canada in 1961, the women’s game spread to more universities after the Fitness and Amateur Sport Act came into force in whereby the Government of Canada made an official commitment to “encourage, promote and develop fitness and amateur sport in Canada.”^[33]

Today, the women’s game is played from youth through adult leagues, and at the university level in North America and internationally. In 2019, the Professional Women’s Hockey Players Association was formed by over 150 players with the goal of creating a sustainable professional league for women’s ice hockey in North America.^[34] Today, there are major professional women’s hockey leagues: the Professional Women’s Hockey League, with teams in the United States and Canada, and the Zhenskaya Hockey League, with teams in Russia and, previously, China.

Prior to the professionalization of women’s ice hockey in the 21st century, professional women hockey players who played against men tended to be goaltenders. The United States Hockey League (USHL) welcomed the first female professional ice hockey player in 1969–70, when the Marquette Iron Rangers signed 18-year-old goaltender Karen Koch.^[35] Only one woman has ever played in the National Hockey League (NHL), goaltender Manon Rhéaume. Rhéaume played in NHL pre-season games as a goaltender for the Tampa Bay Lightning against the St. Louis Blues and the Boston Bruins. In 2003, forward Hayley Wickenheiser played with the Kirkkonummi Salamat in the Finnish men’s Suomi-sarja league.^[36] Women have occasionally competed in North American minor leagues: among them Rhéaume, and fellow goaltenders Kelly Dyer and Erin Whitten. Defenceman Angela Ruggiero became the first woman to actively play in a regular season professional hockey game in North America at a position other than goalie, playing in a single game for the Tulsa Oilers of the Central Hockey League.

Between 1995 and 2005 the number of women’s hockey participants increased by 400 percent.^[37] In 2011, Canada had 85,827 women players,^[38] the United States had 65,609,^[39] Finland 4,760,^[40] Sweden 3,075^[41] and Switzerland 1,172.^[42]

Women’s ice hockey was added as an Olympic medal sport eight years after the first official women’s ice hockey world championship in 1990, at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan.^[43]

Women’s World Championship

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Main article: IIHF Women’s World Championship

The 1987 World Women’s Hockey Tournament in Toronto was the first international competition in women’s hockey, although it was not sanctioned by the IIHF.^[44] Two years later, the 1989 IIHF European Women Championships in West Germany was the first IIHF-sanctioned event and the first European Championship held in women’s hockey, preceding the IIHF-sanctioned Women’s World Championship. The first world ice hockey championship for women was the 1990 IIHF Women’s World Championship in Ottawa.^[30]

As of 2025, more than forty national teams participate in the annual competition, across four divisions: ten teams play in the top division and twelve teams each in Division I, Division II, and Division III. From the introduction of women’s ice hockey as a medal sport in 1998, the top division tournament was not held in Olympic years until a change was approved to the IIHF Statutes & Bylaws in 2021; the 2022 top division tournament was the first to be held in an Olympic season.^[45][46]

Equipment

[edit]

Players in women’s competition are required to wear protective full-face masks.^[47] At all levels, players must wear a pelvic protector, essentially the female equivalent of a jockstrap, known colloquially as a “jill” or “jillstrap”. Other protective equipment for girls and women in ice hockey is sometimes specifically designed for the female body, such as shoulder pads designed to protect a women’s breast area without reducing mobility.

Body checking

[edit]

Body checking has long been a divisive topic in women’s hockey, and has largely been prohibited since the mid-1980s in Canada, and from there internationally. Canada’s Rhonda Leeman Taylor was responsible for banning body contact from all Canadian national women’s tournaments in 1983.^[48] Body checking in some of the women’s hockey leagues in Canada was completely removed in 1986, which helped lead to a substantial increase in female participation in youth ice hockey in Canada.^[49][50]

Prior to this point, body checking had been a part of the women’s game in most cases, including in Europe. It was not until after the 1990 Women’s World Championship that body checking was eliminated from women’s hockey internationally. In addition, until the mid-2000s, obstruction and interference were allowed, including pushing players in front of the net, minor hooking, and setting picks. When the National Hockey League removed obstruction and interference in the mid-2000s, minor hockey leagues and female leagues followed suit.^[51] In women’s IIHF ice hockey today, body checking is considered an “illegal hit” and is punishable by a minor penalty, major penalty and game misconduct, or match penalty.^[47]

The idea of reintroducing body checking to the female game after its removal in the 1980s and 1990s remains controversial. Some of those opposed to its reintroduction maintain it would lead to a loss of female participants, as once stated by Arto Sieppi, Finland’s director of women’s hockey.^[52] Sieppi made the statement in response to claims made by the head coach of Sweden’s national women’s team, Peter Elander,^[53] who had claimed its absence was due to patriarchal sexism.^[54]

Peter is a good friend of mine, but I totally disagree… First of all, it’s a women’s sport, and if bodychecking would be allowed, the number of young girls entering the game would decrease rapidly.^[54]

— Mathew Sekeres, “Too Dainty to Hit?”, The Globe and Mail (September 5, 2009)

The Svenska damhockeyligan (SDHL), known as the Swedish Women’s Hockey League in English, announced in 2022 that it would include body checking during its 2022–23 season, but would maintain a prohibition on open-ice hits.^[55][56] The new program also applies to the Damettan, Sweden’s second-tier women’s league. The Professional Women’s Hockey League, the highest level of women’s professional hockey, which debuted in 2024, also allows body checking. The PWHL rule-book outlines that body checking is permissible “when there is a clear intention of playing the puck or attempting to ‘gain possession’ of the puck”, which is allowed principally along the boards.^[57] League executive Jayna Hefford has stated that body checking was included at the behest of players, and the league’s physicality drew positive reviews when the league began play in January 2024.^[57][58]

Leagues and championships

[edit]

Main article: List of ice hockey leagues

The following is a list of professional ice hockey leagues by attendance:

League	Country	Notes	Average Attendance[59] for 2018–19
National Hockey League (NHL)	United States (25 teams)  Canada (7 teams)		17,406
National League (NL)	Switzerland		6,949
Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL)	Germany		6,215
Kontinental Hockey League (KHL)	Russia (19 teams)  Belarus (1 team)  China (1 team)  Kazakhstan (1 team)	Successor to Russian Superleague and Soviet Championship League	6,397
American Hockey League	United States (26 teams)  Canada (6 teams)	Developmental league for NHL	5,672
Swedish Hockey League (SHL)	Sweden	Known as Elitserien until 2013	5,936
Professional Women’s Hockey League	United States (3 teams)  Canada (3 teams)	Founded in 2023, first game in 2024	5,448
Czech Extraliga	Czech Republic	Formed from the split of the Czechoslovak First Ice Hockey League	5,401
SM-liiga	Finland	Originally SM-sarja from 1928 to 1975. Known as SM-liiga since 1975	4,232
Western Hockey League	Canada (17 teams)  United States (5 teams)	Junior league	4,295
ECHL	United States (25 teams)  Canada (2 teams)	Developmental league for NHL	4,365
Ontario Hockey League	Canada (17 teams)  United States (3 teams)	Junior league	3,853
NCAA Division I Men’s Ice Hockey Tournament	United States	Amateur intercollegiate competition	3,281
Quebec Maritimes Junior Hockey League	Canada	Junior league	3,271
Champions Hockey League	Europe	Europe-wide championship tournament league. Successor to European Trophy and Champions Hockey League	3,397[60]
Southern Professional Hockey League	United States		3,116
Austrian Hockey League	Austria (8 teams)  Hungary (1 team)  Czech Republic (1 team)  Italy (1 team)  Croatia (1 team)		2,970
Elite Ice Hockey League	United Kingdom	Teams in all of the home nations: England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland	2,850
DEL2	Germany	Second division of Germany	2,511
United States Hockey League	United States	Amateur junior league	2,367
HockeyAllsvenskan	Sweden	Second division of Sweden	2,713
GET-ligaen	Norway		1,827
Slovak Extraliga	Slovakia  (11 teams)  Hungary (2 teams)	Formed from the split of the Czechoslovak First Ice Hockey League	1,663
Ligue Magnus	France		1,716
Supreme Hockey League (VHL)	Russia (24 teams)  Kazakhstan (2 teams)  China (2 teams)	Second division of Russia and partial development league for the KHL	1,766
Swiss League	Switzerland	Second division of Switzerland	1,845
Chance Liga	Czech Republic	Second division of Czechia	1,674
Latvian Hockey Higher League	Latvia (6 teams)		1,354
Metal Ligaen	Denmark		1,525
Premier Hockey Federation	United States (5 teams)  Canada (1 team)	Formed in 2015	954[61]
Asia League	Japan (4 teams)  South Korea (1 teams)		976
Mestis	Finland	Successor to I-Divisioona, Second division of Finland	762
Federal Prospects Hockey League	United States		1,546[62]
Ligue Nord-Américaine de Hockey	Canada		1,131[63]
BeNe League	Netherlands (10 teams)  Belgium (6 teams)	Formed in 2015 with teams from Dutch Eredivisie and Belgian Hockey League	784
Polska Hokej Liga	Poland		751
Erste Liga	Hungary (6 teams)  Romania (2 teams)  Austria (1 team)		601
Alps Hockey League	Austria (7 teams)  Italy (8 teams)  Slovenia (2 teams)	Formed in 2016 with the merger of Italy’s Serie A and the joint Austrian–Slovenian Inter-National League	734
Belarusian Extraleague	Belarus		717
Swedish Women’s Hockey League	Sweden	Formed in 2007 and known as Riksserien until 2016	234

Club competition

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North America

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The NHL is the best attended and most popular ice hockey league in the world, and is among the major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada. The league’s history began after Canada’s National Hockey Association decided to disband in 1917; the result was the creation of the National Hockey League with four teams. The league expanded to the United States beginning in 1924 and had as many as 10 teams before contracting to six teams—known today as the Original Six—by 1942–43. In 1967, the NHL doubled in size to 12 teams, undertaking one of the greatest expansions in professional sports history. A few years later, in 1972, a new 12-team league, the World Hockey Association (WHA), was formed and its ensuing rivalry with the NHL caused a rapid escalation in players’ salaries. In 1979, the 17-team NHL merged with the WHA creating a 21-team league.^[64] By 2017, the NHL had expanded to 31 teams, and after a realignment in 2013, these teams were divided into two conferences and four divisions.^[65] The league expanded to 32 teams in 2021.^[66]

The American Hockey League (AHL) is the primary developmental professional league for players aspiring to enter the NHL. It comprises 31 teams from the United States and Canada. It is run as a farm league to the NHL, with the vast majority of AHL players under contract to an NHL team. The ECHL (called the East Coast Hockey League before the 2003–04 season) is a mid-level minor league in the United States with a few players under contract to NHL or AHL teams.

As of 2019, there are three minor professional leagues with no NHL affiliations: the Federal Prospects Hockey League (FPHL), Ligue Nord-Américaine de Hockey (LNAH), and the Southern Professional Hockey League (SPHL).

U Sports ice hockey is the highest level of play at the Canadian university level under the auspices of U Sports, Canada’s governing body for university sports. As these players compete at the university level, they are obligated to follow the rule of standard eligibility of five years. In the United States especially, college hockey is popular and the best university teams compete in the annual NCAA Men’s Ice Hockey Championship. The American Collegiate Hockey Association is composed of college teams at the club level.

In Canada, the Canadian Hockey League is an umbrella organization comprising three major junior leagues: the Ontario Hockey League, the Western Hockey League, and the Quebec Maritimes Junior Hockey League. It attracts players from Canada, the United States, and Europe. The major junior players are considered amateurs as they are under 21-years-old and not paid a salary, rather a stipend, and play a schedule similar to a professional league. Typically, the NHL drafts many players directly from the major junior leagues. In the United States, the United States Hockey League (USHL) is the highest junior league. Players in this league are also amateur with players required to be under 21-years old, but do not get a stipend, which allows players to retain their eligibility for participation in NCAA ice hockey.

The Professional Women’s Hockey League is the highest level of club competition in women’s hockey. It was founded in 2023 and debuted in 2024 with three teams in Canada and three in the United States.^[67]

Eurasia

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The Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) is the largest and most popular ice hockey league in Eurasia. The league is the direct successor to the Russian Super League, which in turn was the successor to the Soviet League, the history of which dates back to the Soviet adoption of ice hockey in the 1940s. The KHL was launched in 2008 with clubs predominantly from Russia, but featuring teams from other post-Soviet states. The league expanded beyond the former Soviet countries beginning in the 2011–12 season, with clubs in Croatia and Slovakia. The KHL currently comprises member clubs based in Belarus (1), China (1), Kazakhstan (1) and Russia (19) for a total of 22.

The second division of hockey in Eurasia is the Supreme Hockey League (VHL). This league features 24 teams from Russia and 2 from Kazakhstan. This league is currently being converted to a farm league for the KHL, similarly to the AHL’s function in relation to the NHL. The third division is the Russian Hockey League, which features only teams from Russia. The Asia League, an international ice hockey league featuring clubs from China, Japan, South Korea, and the Russian Far East, is the successor to the Japan Ice Hockey League.

The highest junior league in Eurasia is the Junior Hockey League (MHL). It features 32 teams from post-Soviet states, predominantly Russia. The second tier to this league is the Junior Hockey League Championships (MHL-B).

Europe

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Several countries in Europe have their own top professional senior leagues. Many future KHL and NHL players start or end their professional careers in these leagues. The National League A in Switzerland, Swedish Hockey League in Sweden, SM-liiga in Finland, and Czech Extraliga in the Czech Republic are all very popular in their respective countries.

Beginning in the 2014–15 season, the Champions Hockey League was launched, a league consisting of first-tier teams from several European countries, running parallel to the teams’ domestic leagues. The competition is meant to serve as a Europe-wide ice hockey club championship. The competition is a direct successor to the European Trophy and is related to the 2008–09 tournament of the same name.

There are also several annual tournaments for clubs, held outside of league play. Pre-season tournaments include the European Trophy, Tampere Cup and the Pajulahti Cup. One of the oldest international ice hockey competition for clubs is the Spengler Cup, held every year in Davos, Switzerland, between Christmas and New Year’s Day. It was first awarded in 1923 to the Oxford University Ice Hockey Club. The Memorial Cup, a competition for junior-level (age 20 and under) clubs is held annually from a pool of junior championship teams in Canada and the United States.

International club competitions organized by the IIHF include the Continental Cup, the Victoria Cup and the European Women’s Champions Cup. The World Junior Club Cup is an annual tournament of junior ice hockey clubs representing each of the top junior leagues.

Other regions

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The Australian Ice Hockey League and New Zealand Ice Hockey League are represented by nine and five teams respectively. As of 2012, the two top teams of the previous season from each league compete in the Trans-Tasman Champions League.

Ice hockey in Africa is a small but growing sport; while no African ice hockey playing nation has a domestic national league, there are several regional leagues in South Africa.

National team competitions

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Ice hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924 (and was played at the summer games in 1920). Hockey is Canada’s national winter sport, and Canadians are extremely passionate about the game. The nation has traditionally done very well at the Olympic Games, winning six of the first seven gold medals. By 1956, its amateur club teams and national teams could not compete with the teams of government-supported players from the Soviet Union. The USSR won all but two gold medals from 1956 to 1988. The United States won its first gold medal in 1960. On the way to winning the gold medal at the 1980 Lake Placid Olympics, amateur US college players defeated the heavily favoured Soviet squad—an event known as the “Miracle on Ice” in the United States. Restrictions on professional players were fully dropped at the 1988 games in Calgary. NHL agreed to participate ten years later. The 1998 Games saw the full participation of players from the NHL, which suspended operations during the Games and has done so in subsequent Games up until 2018. The 2010 games in Vancouver were the first played in an NHL city since the inclusion of NHL players. The 2010 games were the first played on NHL-sized ice rinks, which are narrower than the IIHF standard.

National teams representing the member federations of the IIHF compete annually in the IIHF Ice Hockey World Championships. Teams are selected from the available players by the individual federations, without restriction on amateur or professional status. Since it is held in the spring, the tournament coincides with the annual NHL Stanley Cup playoffs and many of the top players are hence not available to participate in the tournament. Many of the NHL players who do play in the IIHF tournament come from teams eliminated before the playoffs or in the first round, and federations often hold open spots until the tournament to allow for players to join the tournament after their club team is eliminated. For many years, the tournament was an amateur-only tournament, but this restriction was removed, beginning in 1977.

The 1972 Summit Series and 1974 Summit Series, two series pitting the best Canadian and Soviet players without IIHF restrictions were major successes, and established a rivalry between Canada and the USSR. In the spirit of best-versus-best without restrictions on amateur or professional status, the series were followed by five Canada Cup tournaments, played in North America. Two NHL versus USSR series were also held: the 1979 Challenge Cup and Rendez-vous ’87. The Canada Cup tournament later became the World Cup of Hockey, played in 1996, 2004 and 2016. The United States won in 1996 and Canada won in 2004 and 2016.

Since the initial women’s world championships in 1990, there have been fifteen tournaments.^[45] Women’s hockey has been played at the Olympics since 1998.^[43] The only finals in the women’s world championship or Olympics that did not involve both Canada and the United States were the 2006 Winter Olympic final between Canada and Sweden and 2019 World Championship final between the US and Finland.

Other ice hockey tournaments featuring national teams include the World Junior Championship, the World U18 Championships, the World U-17 Hockey Challenge, the World Junior A Challenge, the Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament, the World Women’s U18 Championships and the 4 Nations Cup. The annual Euro Hockey Tour, an unofficial European championship between the national men’s teams of the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia and Sweden have been played since 1996–97.

Attendance records

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Main article: List of ice hockey games with highest attendance

The attendance record for an ice hockey game was set on December 11, 2010, when the University of Michigan‘s men’s ice hockey team faced cross-state rival Michigan State in an event billed as “The Big Chill at the Big House“. The game was played at Michigan’s (American) football venue, Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, with a capacity of 109,901 as of the 2010 football season. When UM stopped sales to the public on May 6, 2010, with plans to reserve remaining tickets for students, over 100,000 tickets had been sold for the event.^[68] Ultimately, a crowd announced by UM as 113,411, the largest in the stadium’s history (including football), saw the homestanding Wolverines win 5–0. Guinness World Records, using a count of ticketed fans who actually entered the stadium instead of UM’s figure of tickets sold, announced a final figure of 104,173.^[69][70]

The record was approached but not broken at the 2014 NHL Winter Classic, which also held at Michigan Stadium, with the Detroit Red Wings as the home team and the Toronto Maple Leafs as the opposing team with an announced crowd of 105,491. The record for an NHL Stanley Cup playoff game is 28,183, set on April 23, 1996, at the Thunderdome during a Tampa Bay Lightning – Philadelphia Flyers game.^[71]

The attendance record for a professional women’s game was set on April 20, 2024, when a sold-out crowd of 21,105 people at the Bell Centre in Montreal watched a PWHL game between Montreal and Toronto.^[72]

International status

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Ice hockey is most popular in Canada, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Eastern Europe, Northern Europe, and the United States. Ice hockey is the official national winter sport of Canada.^[73]

In addition, ice hockey is the most popular winter sport in Austria, Belarus, the Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Norway, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, and Switzerland. North America‘s National Hockey League (NHL) is the highest level for men’s ice hockey and the strongest professional ice hockey league in the world. The Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) is the highest league in Russia and much of Eastern Europe.

The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) is the formal governing body for international ice hockey, with the IIHF managing international tournaments and maintaining the IIHF World Ranking. Worldwide, the International Ice Hockey Federation has 83 member national associations, comprising 60 full members, 22 associate members, and one affiliate member.^[74]

In international competitions, the national teams of six countries (the Big Six) predominate: Canada, Czechia, Finland, Russia, Sweden, and the United States. Of the 69 medals awarded all-time in men’s competition at the Olympics, only seven medals were not awarded to one of those countries (or two of their precursors: the Soviet Union for Russia, and Czechoslovakia for Czechia). In the annual Ice Hockey World Championships, 177 of 201 medals have been awarded to the six nations; Canada has won the most gold medals. Teams outside the Big Six have won only nine medals in either competition since 1953.^[75][76]

The World Cup of Hockey is organized by the National Hockey League and the National Hockey League Players’ Association (NHLPA), unlike the annual World Championships and quadrennial Olympic tournament, both run by the International Ice Hockey Federation. World Cup games are played under NHL rules and not those of the IIHF, and the tournament occurs prior to the NHL pre-season, allowing for all NHL players to be available, unlike the World Championships, which overlaps with the NHL’s Stanley Cup playoffs. Furthermore, all twelve Women’s Olympic and 36 IIHF Women’s World Championship medals were awarded to one of the Big Six. The Canadian national team or the United States national team have between them won every gold medal of either series.^[77][78]

Number of registered players by country

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Number of registered hockey players, including male, female and junior, provided by the respective countries’ federations. This list only includes the 39 of 84 IIHF member countries with more than 1,000 registered players as of March 2025.^[79][80]

Country	Players	% of population
Canada	587,680	1.479%
United States	566,477	0.164%
Russia	90,160	0.062%
Sweden	76,841	0.724%
Finland	66,078	1.176%
Switzerland	31,273	0.351%
Czechia	27,141	0.253%
Germany	26,517	0.031%
France	23,560	0.035%
Japan	13,842	0.011%
Norway	12,415	0.223%
Great Britain	12,236	0.018%
Slovakia	11,728	0.213%
China	10,786	0.001%
Belarus	10,335	0.114%
Hungary	8,569	0.089%
Latvia	7,864	0.420%
Austria	7,576	0.083%
Denmark	6,110	0.102%
Ukraine	5,341	0.014%
Australia	5,270	0.020%
Kazakhstan	4,931	0.024%
Italy	4,901	0.008%
Poland	4,003	0.010%
South Korea	3,587	0.007%
Netherlands	3,088	0.017%
Belgium	2,947	0.025%
India	2,554	0.000%
New Zealand	2,446	0.047%
Kyrgyzstan	2,134	0.030%
Romania	1,719	0.009%
Turkey	1,642	0.002%
Lithuania	1,576	0.055%
North Korea	1,510	0.006%
Mexico	1,391	0.001%
Slovenia	1,243	0.059%
Argentina	1,137	0.002%
Bulgaria	1,054	0.016%
Estonia	1,024	0.075%

Variants

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Pond hockey

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Main article: Pond hockey

Pond hockey is a form of ice hockey played generally as pick-up hockey on lakes, ponds and artificial outdoor rinks during the winter. Pond hockey is commonly referred to in hockey circles as shinny. Its rules differ from traditional hockey because there is no hitting and very little shooting, placing a greater emphasis on skating, stickhandling and passing abilities. Since 2002, the World Pond Hockey Championship has been played on Roulston Lake in Tobique Valley, New Brunswick, Canada.^[81] Since 2006, the US Pond Hockey Championships have been played in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and the Canadian National Pond Hockey Championships have been played in Huntsville, Ontario.

Sledge hockey

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Main article: Sledge hockey

Sledge hockey is an adaption of ice hockey designed for players who have a physical disability. Players are seated in sleds and use a specialized hockey stick that also helps the player navigate on the ice. The sport was created in Sweden in the early 1960s and is played under similar rules to ice hockey.

In popular culture

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Main article: Ice hockey in popular culture

Ice hockey is the official winter sport of Canada. Ice hockey, partially because of its popularity as a major professional sport, has been a source of inspiration for numerous films, television episodes and songs in Canadian and American popular culture.